Salient features of Vedic, Buddhist and Jain
system of education – Development of education during the pre-independent
period
Education
Russell
saw education as the key to structuring human character. For him education was “the formation, by
means of instruction, of certain mental habits and a certain outlook on life
and the world.
Education in India during Vedic Period
Introduction
The system of education
which was developed during Vedic period is termed as the Vedic system of
education. The administration and organization of education remained almost the
same, throughout the Vedic period, but with the advancement of time, knowledge,
art and skills, its curriculum and teaching methods underwent a change.
Main
Features of Vedic Education
Aims, Ideals and Objectives of Vedic
Education
·
Immediate
aim of education:- Vocational: The immediate aim of
education, however, was to prepare the different casts of people for their
actual needs of life
·
Ultimate
aim of education-self-Realization:- Ancient Indians
believed that education should prepare and individual in such a way as to
prepare him to attain the objective of liberation, i.e. to be one with the
almighty and to be free from the cycle of births and deaths.
·
Education for worldliness:- Vocational
aim :- Happiness in other world was given more stress than the happiness in
this world. This world according to them, was unreal and full of fetters. The
highest wisdom was a release from these betters.
·
Character formation:- Education
must from character. Mere intellect was not of worth if the person was devoid
of not much morality. Morality or the right behavior was the higher “Dharma”.
Education was regarded as a means of inculcating values such as strict
obedience to elders, truthfulness, honesty and temperance.
·
Development of all round
personality:- Ancient Indians believed that
personality should be developed through education. Personality was developed
through the following methods:-
(a)
Self-restraint
(b)
Self-confidence
(c)
Self-respect
(d)
Discrimination and judgement
·
Prepare for Social duties:- A
student was not to lead self-centered life. He was to perform his duties as a
son, as a husband, as a father and many other capacities conscientiously and
efficiently in the society. His wealth was not for his own sake as for his
family, he must be hospitable and charitable.
·
Promotion of Social Efficiency and
Welfare:- Society had accepted the theory of division of work
which was later on governed by the principle of heredity. Each family trained
its children in its own profession. The purpose was to make each individual
society efficient.
System of Education
Followed
the Gurukula system of education. Teachers and pupils
lived together and so identified themselves with one another.
Administration and Finance of Education
Students got
free education in Ancient India. Society realized that
“Vidyadana” or the gift in the cause of education was to be the best of gifts,
possessing a higher religious merit than even the gift of land. The main
Sources of Income were Donation, Dan, Guru Dakshina
The kings, emperors and affluent
sections of the society voluntarily gave donations in the form of land,
animals, grains, clothes, utensils, money of these gurugulas. The students begged
alms from society of meet the day to day needs of the gurugulas. The another
source of income of the gurugulas was guru dakshana. On the completion
of education, students paid guru dakshina according to individual volition
which could be land, animals, grains, clothes or money.
Curriculum:-
The curriculum of education during Vedic
period was divided into two forms – Materialistic, Spiritual.
i.
Material Curriculum
It included language, grammar,
numerology, agriculture, cattle rearing, arts(music and dance), skills
(weaving, dying, woodwork, metal work, craft), economics, politics, geology,
physiology, snake science, logic, astrology, medical science, military science,
exercise, exercise, gurukal organization.
ii.
Spiritual Curriculum
It included education of Vedic literature (Four
Vedas, Six Vedangas, Four Upvedas, Four
Brahmanas, One hundred and eighty Upanishads, Six systems of philosophy, Bhagwad Gita and Three Smritis), theology and ethics and training in activities
like control of sense organs, religion based conduct, mode of worship, evening
prayers etc.
Method
of teaching
There were three steps in instruction:
1. Sravana 2. Manana 3. Nididhyasana.
·
Sravana Oral Method is listening
to words texts as they uttered by the teacher.
·
Manana Thinking Method is the
process of deliberation or reflection of the topic taught.
·
Nididhyasana Manas (reflection)
method represents the highest stage(research)
Method
of study:- The method of study consisted in listening
to the teacher, reflection on what has been listened to and its constant
revision and discussion.
Medium
of Instruction:-
The medium of instruction was Sanskrit.
Role
of Teachers
During Vedic period, very scholarly,
self-studious, religious and persons of good character could become teachers.
Besides being scholarly they used to have extreme self-control. They occupied
the highest place in the society and were established as gods.
Duties
of teachers towards students:
i.
To make arrangement for student’s
lodging, food and clothing etc.
ii.
To look after the health of the students
and arrange treatment in case of falling ill.
iii. To compulsorily impart education in language,
religion and ethics.
iv.
To teach students good conduct and build their character.
v.
To inspire students towards activities
work doing and prevent them from undesirable
activities.
Role
of Students
During Vedic period only unmarried
students were admitted in gurugulas. The students were called Brahmachari. They
had to observe celibacy, eat simple and pure food, wear simple clothes and to
abstain from intoxications.
Students’
Duties towards teachers
i. To look after the
cleanliness of gurugal and its complete arrangements.
ii. To clean the
teacher’s residence and arrange for teacher’s worship.
iii. To seek alms for
teacher and other residents of the gurukul.
iv. To massage the feet
of the teacher before going to bed.
v. To abide by the
orders of the teacher with devotion.
Teacher
– Student Relationship
During Vedic period the teachers and
students enjoyed a cordial relationship. The teachers considered the students
as their son and the students regarded teachers as their father. Affection
flowed from above and devotion steamed from below.
Teachers
as Spiritual as well as Intellectual Guide
Teacher occupied a pivotal position in
the Vedic System of education. The teacher was a parent surrogate (Parent Substitute),
a facilitator of learning, exemplar and inspirer, confident, detector friend
and philosopher moral educator, reformer, evaluator, character and personality
builder, importer if knowledge and wisdom and above all a guru, religious and
spiritual guide. Teacher was the spiritual father of his pupils. In addition to
imparting intellectual knowledge to them, he was also morally responsible.
Students
Discipline:- It was considered to be the best
discipline. However
Corporal punishment was not altogether
ruled out. Self-control and
Self–Discipline were followed
Education
of women:- In the earlier Vedic, and Upanishad
times, girls were free to go through the “Upanayana’ ceremony , live a life of
celibacy, studied Vedas, vedangas and other subjects along with their brother
pupils.
The Vedas give a very
honorable and respectable status to women. They were eligible for higher
education for the study of the Vedas and the performance of administrative and
other important jobs mostly performed by men even today. Boys should go to the
schools meant for boys and girls should go to the schools where there are women
teachers. The women should have opportunity to attain knowledge of the Vedas
from all the four concerns.
Role
of Travel in Education:- Travel was regarded as necessary
to give a finish tough to education.
Admission
and Evaluation System
There seems to be no direct reference
available to spell out the methodology followed by the Acharya to judge the
adequacy of knowledge of his pupils. Yaskas and Sayana, famous commentators on
the Vedas, have inferred from the Rig Veda hymn that the students were given
three grades as under:
1.
Maha Prazanan grade:- Students of very
high ability.
2.
Madhyama Prazanan grade:- Students of
high ability.
3.
Alpa Prazanan grade:- Students of low
ability.
Autonomy
of Educational Institutions
Teachers in the Vedic period were
autonomous in their work and they followed various methods of admission and
assessment. A teacher was the sole pedagogic authority to decide whether the
student was fit for admission and also to decide whether he had completed his
studies.
Studentship
There is a long hymn in the ‘Atharva
Veda’ describing the ceremony pertaining to studentship. The initiation
ceremony was called Upanayana which lasted three days. It laid down the
foundation of a planned life. The pupil owed his first birth-physical to his
parents and the second birth spiritual to his teacher. The rite of Upanayana
was meant to purify body and mind and to make one fit for receiving education.
After ‘Upanayana’ the pupil entered into
a state of ‘Brahmacharya’ indicating that it was a mode of life, and a system
of education. The ‘Brahmachari’ as the aspirant for education was now called
lived according to prescribed regulations, i.e., physical discipline as well as
spiritual discipline.,
Discipline
Anthropology, Astronomy,
Economics, Epistemology, Eschatology, Ethnology, Geology, Human eugenics, Mathematics
and Military Science are the main Discipline.
The system of education
was well-organized. It was suited to the needs of the society education was
considered as the greatest gift in ancient India. It was aimed at the development
of personality of an individual to his maximum extent. Education helped in the realization
of spiritual and moral values, besides preparing for worldly pursuits. It was
freely available to all those who wanted the relations between teachers and the
pupils were based on love and affection. They were very cordial and intimate.
Merits
and Demerits of Vedic Education
Merits
Merits
- Education
was free for all eligible learners.
- Teaching-learning
process took place in natural surroundings.
- Pupils
lived a simple and pure life of ‘Brahmacharya’
- There was
intimate relationship (like that of father and son)between the teacher and
the taught.
- The
teacher, without any expectations from his pupils or their families,
provided education by teaching what all he knew.
- Teachers
commanded high respect and dignity from all the sections of the society.
- All pupils
were treated alike irrespective of their social status.
Demerits
- Education
was provided only to Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaisyas and denied to
Sudhras.
- Women
education was not given any importance.
- Medium of
instruction was Sanskrit and not the language of the masses.
- Some
considered the service rendered by pupils in the household activities of
the teacher, as slavery.
- Vedas were
given undue importance in the curriculum.
Conclusion
In retrospect it may be said that the
Vedic system of education was the best system of education in contemporary
world but from the point of view of the present Indian society some of its
aspects are worth adopting, while some are to be given up.
EDUCATION DURING BUDHIST PERIOD
Introduction
Buddhism was born in India and was
started by Gautam Buddha who was an Indian prince of Sakya Dynasty of
Kshatriyas. In fact, he gave a new form to the religion. The monasteries were
the centres of education during the Buddhist period. Besides monasteries, there
were no other organizations for imparting education. Only the Buddhist could
receive religious and other types of education. Other persons were deprived of this
facility. There was no place for Yajna in the Buddhist system. Buddhist period
in Indian education roughly starts from 600 B.C and last for about 1200 years
till 600A.D. During Vedic period education was mostly individualistic effort
whereas during Buddhist period institutional organization is one of the chief
characteristics of education.
Buddhist
education
Buddhist education was based on the
teaching of Gautam Buddha. These teachings were so important that they remained
a source of inspiration for individual as well as social development in India.
Aims of Education
The chief aims of Buddhist education had
been the following :-
i. Development of education:-
The chief aim of Buddhist education was all round development of child’s
personality. This included his physical , mental, moral and intellectual development.
ii. Formation of character:-
During this period, in the organization of education, special emphasis was laid
on the formation of character of the students. Student life was hard and rigorous.
They observed celibacy.
iii. Religious education:-
In the Buddhist era, religion was given top priority and education was imparted
through it. The chief aim of education was propagation of religion and inculcation
of religious feelings and education served as a mean to achieve salvation or nirvana.
iv. Preparation for life:-
In this system of education, there was a provision for imparting wordily and
practical knowledge along with religious education so that when the students entered
normal life they may be able to earn their livelihood.
v. Physical Development
According to Buddha, good health helps a
man to escape from bodily suffering. So he gave importance for physical development.
vi. Development of knowledge
To achieve Nirvana, they emphasized on
the development of true knowledge. In Buddhist period the practical knowledge
of the material world and of the four noble truths were regarded as the true
knowledge.
vii. Education of social behaviour
Buddhist religion is a supporter of
human welfare. This is the reason that too much emphasis was placed upon
compassion and kindness.
viii. Preservation and Development of
human culture
Buddhist religion emphasizes the
preservation of human culture as a whole. For that, they encourage the study of
other religions, cultures and philosophies.
ix. Character formation
They gave too much importance on self
control compassion and kindness and those who practice, these ideals possess
good character.
x. Vocational Development
To overcome the sufferings of hunger,
education of art, skills and vocation is necessary.
xi. Education of Buddhist religion
Students were trained in the eight fold
path namely-Right view, Right resolve, Right occupation, Right speech, Right
behaviour, Right effort, Right contemplation and Right meditation to achieve
salvation
5.2.3. Principle or Four noble truths of
Buddhisim
Buddha was primarily an ethical teacher
and reformer, not a metaphysician. The message of his enlightenment points to
man the way of life that leads beyond suffering. The four noble truths are:-
(1) There is suffering.
(2) There is cause of suffering
(Dukhasamaudaya).
(3) There is cessation of suffering
(Dukhanirodha).
(4) There is a way leading to the
cessation of suffering (Dukhanirodh- marg).
5.2.4. Pabbaja Ceremony
Pabbaja was an accepted ceremony of the
Buddhist monasteries. Pabbaja means going out. According to this ceremony the
students after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his worldly
and family relationship. An individual belonging to any caste could be admitted
to a monastery and after being admitted he did not belong to any caste. For
pabbaja ceremony the individual had to get his head fully shaved and put on
yellow clothes.
In this shape he was presented before
the presiding Bhikshu. On presentation this individual would pray for admission
to the monastery. On his prayer the head Bikshu would administer three basic
advices:
(1) I take refuse with Budha.
(2) I take refuge with religion.
(3) I take refuge with the order.
The aspirant for admission used to
pronounce these advices very distinctly. Then his admission was permitted. On
being admitted the individual was called a Sharman.
5.2.5. Upasampada Ceremony
After pabbaja the Buddhist monk had to
undergo the Upasampada ceremony. This ceremony was different from pabbaja
ceremony. It was after receiving education for twelve years, that it is at the
age of twenty years, Upasampada ceremony was performed. The Sharman has to present
himself in front before all other monks of the monastery. One could be admitted
for this ceremony only when the majority of the monks voted in favour of the
same. After this ceremony the Sharman was regarded as full- fledge member of
the monastery. On this occasion all his worldly and family relationships ended.
5.2.6. Curriculum
In Buddhist education primary, higher
and Bhikshu education were organized in Maths and Vihars and as they were under
the control of Buddhist Sanghs.
i. Curriculum of primary Education
Duration of primary education was 6
years. Reading, writing, five different sciences namely Morphology, Astronomy,
Medicine, logic and spirituality were taught.
ii. Curriculum of Higher Education
Duration of higher education was
generally of 12 years. During this period a general knowledge of grammar,
religion, astrology, ayurved and philosophy was imparted to students. Special
education included Pali, Prakit and Sanskrit languages along with their grammar
and literature and such
subjects as astrophysics, cosmology, jurisprudence, political science,
economics, arts, skills, vocations, architecture, Buddhist, Jain and Vedic
religions, theology, logic.
iii. Curriculum of Bhikshu Education
Duration of Bhikshu education was 8
years but those Bhikshu who intended to acquire higher knowledge in Buddhist
religion and philosophy could continue their education further. Both worldly
and religious education is concerned initially imparted but at higher level
specialization in any of the field may be taken.
1. Worldly Curriculum
Reading, writing, mathematics arts,
skills and vocational education
2. Religious curriculum
For General students Buddhist, Jain and
Vedic religion were imparted. For the Bhikshu education, they had to study
Buddhist literature namely Tripitak, Sulta, Vinay and Avidhamma pitak.
5.2.7. Method of Teaching
Buddhist education aimed at purity of
character. Like Vedic education it was training for moral character rather than
psychological development of the students. One has to attain the stage of
Bodhisattva. Mental and moral development was emphasized. Following were the
methods:-
1. Verbal education:
Through the art of writing had been well developed up to Buddhist period yet,
due to shortage and no availability of writing materials, verbal education was
prevalent as it was in Vedic age. The teacher used to give lessons to the
novices who learnt them by heart. The teacher used to put questions on the
learning the lesson by heart.
2. Discussion:
In order to win discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public, it
was necessary to improve the power of discussion. This was also needed to
satisfy the critics and opposing groups and establish one’s own cult. Thus,
rules were framed for discussion.
3. Prominence of logic:
The importance of discussion encouraged the logic in the Buddhist period. The
controversial matters could not be decided without logical argument. Logic was
also useful in the development of the mental power and knowledge.
4. Tours:
The main of the Buddhist monks was to propagate Buddhism .Hence some Acharyas
like Sariputta, Mahayaggalva, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc gave the importance to
tours for educating people.
5. Conference:
Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1st day of month in the
Budhist sanghs. The monks of different sanghs assembled and put forward their
doubts freely. The attendance of every monk was compulsory in such conference.
6. Meditation in solitude:
Some Buddhist monks were more interested in isolated spiritual meditation in
lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely
meditation that had fully renounced the worldly attraction and had spent enough
time in the sanghs and had gained the efficiency for solitary medications.
5.2.8. Assembly of Learned People
On the beginning and close of every
month learned people used to assemble together. This type of assembly together
was a very important part of Buddhist education. The purpose of this assembly
was to maintain the moral standards of all the monks, because the total education
was based on morality. It was compulsory for all the monks to be present in
this assemble so much so that even ill monks used to try to attend it anyhow.
If due to illness it was not possible for monk to come, then assembly was held
near his residence. This assembly was quite democratic and it has immense moral
impact on all concerned.
The Nature of Mass Education
The monasteries or Buddha Vihars were
the chief centres of learning and only the Buddhist monks could be admitted to
them for education. Thus there was no planned arrangement for mass education as
such during the period. It forms this position it would be wrong to construct
that the Buddhist monks were unmindful of the education of the people in
general. So at the time of begging alms the monks used to remove the religious
doubts of the people through their interesting conversation or short and alp
lectures. Thus the people in general received moral and religious education
from the monks.
Women Education
Women education during the Buddhist
period was at its lowest ebb, as the women folk were despised in the sense that
Lord Buddha had regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised
during his regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised during
his life time not to admit women in monasteries. But after some time due to the
insistence of his dear pupil Anand, Buddha had permitted about 500 women along
with his stepmother for admission in vihars with many restriction and
reservation.
Vocation Education
Vocation education was not ignored
during the Buddhist system of education. The monks of Vihar were taught
spinning, weaving and sewing in order that they meet their clothing
requirement. They were taught architecture as well. Education in architecture
enabled them to build up new Vihars or repair the old ones. Similarly the
householders following Buddhism but living outside Vihar were given training in
different type of and also earn their livelihood.
Discipline
Both teacher and students must follow
the rules of Buddhist Sanghs Strictly. Generally twice a month teacher and
students met at a specific place for introspection and to confess. Corporal
punishment was abhorred in that period.
Role of Teacher in Buddhist System
Budhist philosophy admit the possible of
attaining peace here and now, though, it start with a pessimistic note.
Teacher, therefore, need not have any cry of despair. Bhikshus were the
teacher. Budhist vihar as or monasteries have their methods of Imitation and
training for the apprentices. The preceptor must give his disciple, all
possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance. There was mutual esteem
between the teacher and the pupil. There relations were like father and son.
The teacher was regarded as spiritual father or intellectual father of the student.
During Budhist period the place of
teacher in the scheme of education was very important. There were the
categories of teachers – Acharyas and Upadhayas. According to Sutras Literature
Acharya may admit according to his unfettered discretion, a number of pupils,
who would have to live with him at this house, for a minimum period of twelve
years. He would not accept any fees from the pupils under this instruction. The
progress shown by pupil was the only factor that determined the continence of
his apprenticeship.
Qualification of Teachers
1) 8 years of Bhikshu education after 12
years of higher education
2) to adopt Buddhism
3) life long celibacy
4) strict adherence to the sangh
discipline
These teachers had to make arrangements
of boarding and food for their students, impart knowledge to them and guide
them to overcome worldly attachments.
Responsibility of Teacher
Both the teacher and the student were
responsible to the monastery or the Buddhist order. But regarding education,
clothes, food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was wholly
responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student
whenever he fell ill. The teacher used to bestow all the affection to his
student and used to educate his through lecture and question answer method.
3.2.14. Student in Buddhist System of
Education
The Buddhist system like the
Brahmanical, enjoins upon the pupil the duty of serving this preceptor as a
part of education. The pupils is to rise early in morning from the bed and give
his teacher teeth-cleaner and water to rinse his mouth with; then, preparing a
seat for him, serve him rice- milk in rinse his mouth with; then, preparing as
seat for him, serve him rice milk in rinsed jug, and after his drinking it,
wash the vessel and sweep the place. Afterwards he is to equip him for his
begging round by giving him fresh undergarments, girdle, his two upper
garments, and his alms- bowl rinsed and filled with water and then is to dress
and equip himself similarly if he wants to accompany his teacher but must not
walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too
far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from
or near him. He is not to interrupt his teacher in speaking, even if he makes a
mistake. There were also rules for the expulsion of a pupil by his teacher. In
five cases a Saddhiviharika ought to be turned away; when he does not feel
great affection for his Upajjhaya, nor great inclination towards him, nor much shame,
nor great reverence, nor great devotion.
Students in Buddhist period were termed
as Shraman or Samner. They had to compulsorily reside in Maths and vihars. They
had to get up early in the morning before teachers and had to make arrangements
for their morning prayers. Students unable to pay fees for higher education had
to contribute manual service.
Daily routine of Students (Diuchariya)
The student was expected to serve his
teacher with all devotion. On rising in the morning the student will arrange
everything for the daily routine of the teacher. He will cook his food and
clean his clothes and utensils. Whatever he acquired through begging alms, he would
place before teacher. The student had to prepare himself to receive education
at any time whenever the teacher required him.
Expulsion of pupils
The teacher of a Buddhist monastery was
empowered to expel any student on charge of misconduct or any type of serious
disobedience. However, the student was expelled only when it was definitely
ascertained that he lacked faith and respect for the teacher and the other
things related to the sanctity of the monastery. After the death of the teacher
or when the teacher changed his religion or left the monastery for elsewhere,
the students also deserted the monastery. The education of the concerned
students ended then and there.
5.2.15. Teacher- Taught Relationship
Teachers were like father figure to
students. They generally looked after the administration of maths and vihars
and organized teaching work while students carry out the different tasks as
advised by their teachers.
Conclusion
In retrospect we may say that the
foundation of modern Indian system of education was laid down in Vedic system
of education but the complete structure that is central administration, school education,
group teaching, was laid in the Buddhist system of education.
JAIN SYSTEM OF
EDUCATION
Jinas
or Tirthankars are founders of Jainism. There were twenty three teerthankaras
before Mahaveera, who was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha (6th century BCE)
and is credited with formulation of a sect known as Jainism.
Division in Jainism
Jainism
is divided into two sects of Swetambara and Digambara. The Swetambara monks wear
white and Digambara ascetic who practice extreme renunciation have to discard even
the last piece of cloth or the barest necessity of life, to overcome worldly
binding. The followers of Lord Mahaveer compiled a collection of his teachings
in a book form. This book has been divided mainly into two parts—Swetamber and
Digamber.
Principles of Jainism
·
The literal meaning of Jaina refers to a
person who has overcome his sensual vices and has obtained full control over
his wordly desires.
·
Jainas laid great stress on right
knowledge and right conduct for self realization.
·
This system stressed five principles for
a virtuous conduct. These principles are non-violence truth, non-stealing,
Brahmacharya and Giving away of superfluous wealth to others.
Aims of
Education
Jain system recommended liberation as
the ultimate aim of education. According to this system liberation is of two
types i.e., Jivan Mukti and upper level is Dravya Mukti. Education should help
the student to do such karmas which leads towards Jivan Moksha, which again
will lead towards the higher level Dravya moksha. Thus this system stresses
social, economic, moral and spiritual aims of education.
Curriculum
Tri-ratna or three Jewels (Right
faith, Right knowledge and Right character)
Jaina curriculum includes social
sciences, natural sciences, moral education, vocational education and various
cocurricular activities and yoga exercises.
Concept
of Values
The escape of the Jiva from matter is
liberation according to Jain Philosophy. The Jaina system has suggested way of
obstructing the entry of karma. It is essential to sacrifice bad qualities like
attachment etc. and to have Nididhyasana. This makes the mind flexible and pure
and the Jiva can recognize the ‘soul’ situated in its own body. With this the
person endeavoring is bereft
Methods
of Teaching
·
Experimental method and learning by
doing method.
·
Discussion method and to maximise
student participation in the teaching learning process.
·
Jaina system also emphasised group
activities. For this group projects, self control, sense of responsibility towards
their nation were stressed by the Jaina methods of teaching
·
Work oriented education and Vocational
education must provide
·
Practical knowledge or work experience
to the students.
·
socialized techniques, experiments,
learning by doing, co-ordination etc
Language
Sanskrit
and Prakrit
Method of Learning
Self-study was given due importance and
a student is shown as reading a palm-leaf book with great attention.The method
of learning various subjects was traditional, i.e., memorizing repeating, and reproducing.
Vada or discussion formed the main platform in Jaina system and training was
given in oratory. Most of the famous preceptors were great orators and
established supremacy of Jainism over other sects by arguing, disputing, and
discussing logically. Tarkasasatra or
science of logic occupied prominent place in Jaina syllabus.
Jaina
guru or Teacher
A
Jaina guru was the most respected in the Jaina community and we have a good
deal of pictorial evidence. Sculptures depicting teachers imparting lesson are
several. Stools to keep the palm-book ready are depicted in numerous sculptures.
Great teacher of
Jainism
Great
ascetic teacher of Jainism like Kondakunda, Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Jinasena,
Puspadanta and Somadeva etc. hailed from Karnataka and their works in Sanskrit
and Prakrit are studied throughout India. Jainism, unlike Buddhism continues to
flourish over centuries in this land.
Jaina
students
Jaina students devotedly listen to an
ascetic teacher under the shade of a tree.
Jaina
monasteries
The Jaina monasteries had libraries of
palm-leaf books and many secular subjects besides Jaina agamas or holy texts.
There were texts of other languages and regions as well.Many more old and rare
manuscripts are stored in the libraries of well-known Jaina monasteries. But
these are not easily available to scholars who are of non-Jaina faith.
The Jaina monastic life was well
organized. After getting admission, a supervisor, known as the niryapaka kept a
watch on the behavior of each and every student. Wrongdoers were admonished in
time and waywardness punished. Rigorous training and study awaited the
incumbents. They had to make their own arrangements for day-to-day needs and
beg for food. Spicy food was to be avoided. Training was given to control basic
instincts like anger, joy, and sorrow and show calmness to all creatures under
all circumstances.
Besides food and shelter, books were
distributed free. Medical instruction was also imparted at the free hospitals
attached. Hospitals big and small were attached to Jaina mathas of his pain.
Development of
education during the pre-independent period
EDUCATION
DURING ISLAMIC PERIOD
Introduction
During medieval period Muslim rulers
started a new system of education which is popularly known as Maktab-Madarsha
system Muslim system of education. Side by side the old Pathashala system also
continued for Hindu students. We shall discuss the Muslim system of Education
in detail. The period under review covers the system of education in India from
about the 10th century A.D. to the middle of the 18th century, i.e.
before the British rule.
Aims of Education
·
Spread of
Islamic Culture & Islamic Religion:
·
Developing love for Muslim culture and
religion.
·
Enabling the individual for Islamic
life.
·
Preparing the students for the next
world.
·
Equipping the students for a vocation.
·
Preparing individuals for running
administration.
·
Development of
knowledge
·
Development of
character and morality:
·
Loyalty to the
Government:
·
Education of Arts, skills and Vocations:
Types
of institutions:
1.
Primary Muslim Education: Primary
education was imparted through the ‘Maktab’ which were attached with mosque.
Most of the Maktabs were either patronized by rulers or had endowment. They
dependent on the charity of the philanthropist.
Age
of admission: At the age of four years, four months
and four days, ‘Maktab’ ceremony or ‘Bismillah’ was performed to indicate the
beginning of the child. ‘Surah-i-Iqra’ a chapter from the holy Quran was
recited on this occasion.
2. Secondary and high education: Secondary
and high educations were functioned in ‘Madrasahs’. Countryside as the centre of education: By and large, educational
institutions flourished in the countryside
3.
Vocational education: Provision was
also made for vocational, technical and professional education. Emperor Akbar
took considerable interest in education as is evident from the passage of from
the ‘Ain-in-Akbar’.
Curriculum
Curriculum
at the primary level: Knowledge of alphabets, 30th
section of Quran, reading, writing, mathematics, letter and application writing
and the way of conversation, proper pronunciation and good handwriting
Curriculum at the higher level: The
curriculum was divided into two categories namely-worldly and religious.
Worldly curriculum: Arabic
and Persian languages and their Literature, Mathematics, Geometry, History, Geography,
Economics, Political Science, Astrology, Islamic law, Unani Medicine and various
arts, skills and vocations
Religious curriculum: Quran,
Islamic history, Islamic literature, Sufi literature and Islamic law.
Language:
Arabic and Persian languages were mostly
compulsory. For getting high government posts, one had to learn these
languages.
Fees:
There were several village schools where
the students were required to pay their instructions, not in cash but in kind.
Education of sons of Nobles and Rulers:
The Muslims nobles as well as rulers engaged tutors to teach their children at
home.
Monitorial system:
Although a teacher did not have many pupils to teach yet, still the teacher
would take the help of senior and advanced students to teach the younger or the
junior.
Methods of teaching
·
Wooden
books (taktis) were used.
·
Individualized instructions:
·
Calligraphy:
beautiful and fine handwriting was an important element of instruction.
·
Religious
Instruction:
·
imitation, practice and memorization
·
Self study method was also adopted for
higher level.
·
To teach the activity oriented subjects,
arts, skills and other vocations Demonstration, Experiment and practice method
were adopted.
Teachers:
(USTAD)
People
well versed in Islamic religion and Scholars of Arabic or Persian or other subjects
could become teachers. They receive high salary and they possessed high status
in the society.
Students
(SHAGIRD)
The
students lived under the strict control and discipline of the teachers. They
lived in a highly authoritative and oppressive condition. They lead a
sophisticated life in the hostels. In hostel they had very good infrastructure
facilities and very delicious food was provided.
Teacher-Taught
Relationship
Teacher loved their students and taught
them with great concern. Students also respected their teachers and obeyed them
devotedly. The practice of living with the teacher was not as common with the
Muslim as it was in the case of Brahmanic and Buddhist period
Discipline:
Punishments were quit severe. Corporal punishment was given and at the same
time there was a provision of reward for disciplined students.
INITIAL EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE EUROPEAN
CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES
Introduction
India has been a centre of attraction to
foreigners since ancient period. In 1448, Vasco-de-Gama, discovered the sea
route to India. Portuguese Christian missionaries were the pioneers to
introduce modern system of education. The Dutch, French and Danish missionaries
also continued but at the end British missionaries succeeded everyone. But the
British were succeeded in establishing themselves in India.
Educational work of the Portuguese
Christian Missionaries
·
In 1498 Vasco-da-Gama, the Portuguese
sailor discovered the sea route to India.
·
In 1510 the Portuguese established their
rule over Goa.
·
In 1556 they set up a printing press in
Goa.
·
In 1575 they established a Jesuit
college in Goa.
·
In 1577 St. Ann College at Bombay.
·
Portuguese were focused on propagation
of Christianity, culture and educational institutions.
·
“Saints
Francis Xavier and Robert-de-nobli” were well known missionaries
·
Portuguese missionaries established
primary schools first.
·
They taught Portuguese, Latin, local
language, mathematics, grammar, logic, logic crafts, music and education of
Christianity.
·
They started printing religious books
and text books in their own press.
·
Textbooks, clothing and food were provided
freely to the poor students.
·
Started primary schools in Daman, Diu,
Hoogly, Chatgaon, Cochin and Bombay
·
Started modern primary education and
modern higher education in India.
·
Akbar impressed by the Jesuit fathers
and established a Jesuit college at Agra. But the Portuguese’s cast their eyes on
Delhi. Emperor Shahjahan drove them out in 1662.
·
Portuguese are regarded as the founder
of European system of education in India.
Educational
work of the Dutch Christian missionaries
·
Dutch traders from Holland entered India
in the mid of 17th century.
·
They established trading centers along
the sea cost in Chinsura and Hoogly in Bengal and Nagapattinam and Billipattm
in Madras.
·
Dutch missionaries had also missionaries
accompanied them.
·
They established primary schools to
educate children of both, the Dutch and Indian citizens working in Dutch
factories as well as Indians also.
·
They taught Dutch, local languages, geography,
mathematics and local arts and skills on European pattern in these schools.
·
They refrained from making these schools
the centre of religious education. “Due to enmity with the British” they had to
leave India soon.
Educational work of the French Christian
Missionaries
·
The French traders entered into India in
1667.
·
They too had brought French Christian missionaries.
·
French established factories in Mahe,
Yanam, karaikal, Chandernagore and Pondicherry.
·
They established primary schools near
their factories.
·
In the hands of Missionaries the schools
were entrusted.
·
The medium of education was French and
local languages.
·
French and Indian teachers were
appointed in the schools.
·
Education of Christian religion, French
and was compulsory.
·
Christian missionary was inevitably
appointed in each school to instruct religious education. Established education
in secondary school in Pondicherry.
·
Faced the enmity with British people in
three Carnatic wars they had to leave India.
·
Back to square one British took over the
position.
Educational work of the Danish Christian
Missionaries
·
In 1680 the Danish traders and
missionaries reached India.
·
They established their factories in
Serampore, Travancore, Tanjore and Thrichirapalli.
·
They too in line with the thinking of
previous missionaries i.e nothing but propagation of Christianity.
·
To propagate christiaity they
established primary schools in Travancore, Tanjore and Madras and the organization
of the schools were given to the missionaries.
·
The medium was local language and
education of Christianity was compulsory.
·
They translated bible into Tamil
language and set up printing press to print Bible in Tamil.
·
They converted 5000 Tamilians into
Christians.
·
In 1716, they established a Teacher
Training College in Travancore, pioneer of starting teacher training college in
India.
·
The medium was multi-lingual.
·
They failed to succeed in trade and
commerce and at last sold the factories to British people and returned to their
country, Denmark.
Educational
work of the British Christian Missionaries
·
They have contributed a lot to the
development of modern system of English Education.
·
East India Company came to India 1613.
·
Every British ship was accompanied by a Missionary.
·
The only aim the missionaries had to
propagate Christianity and British culture.
·
They made Bengal their centre for this
work.
·
They started this work in two methods;
one through education, other is service to the poor and infirmed.
·
The missionaries were supported by
Britain and East India company for financial assistance and patronage.
·
They established many charity based
schools in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
·
There were two types of these schools.
·
The first, medium of education was
English and second, the medium was local languages.
·
But the education of Christianity was
compulsory to both types of schools. Missionary work was bit slower in the
beginning.
·
After the Charter Act 1695, East India
Company permitted missionary fathers to run schools in the British cantonments.
·
As a result missionaries took up the
task and established hundreds of primary schools in
·
Bengal, Bombay and Madras (1731).
·
They established secondary schools in
Madras. Education of Christianity was made compulsory in all these schools.
·
Simultaneously East India Companies hand
soared high due to the internal conflicts between the emperors of India.
·
There was a bill against propagating religion
in schools.
·
By that way missionaries established a
lot of schools in various places in India.
·
There were three Christian controversial
missionaries who published a book titled to
·
Address to Hindus and Muslims.
·
In that book they expressed their own
views and the experiences with the people who practice Hinduism and Islam.
·
General Lord Minto arrested the
missionary, seized all the rights of the press and banned the books.
·
To oppose this act by the General, two
groups were formed in British parliament.
·
One group supported the act and other
against. In 1813, missionaries were given permission to visit India without any
restriction to organize education.
·
Even though Christian missionaries established
institutions to propagate Christianity in India, they have contributed an enormously
contributed for the development to the field of education in India.
·
They fixed the curriculum, prepared
textbook, method of teaching and published them.
·
They introduced time-table, class system
and examination system for class promotion.
·
East India Company had two ideas in this
context 1. Propagate Christianity 2. Educate Indians. When they established
themselves ruler of the country they executed their plan and accomplished it
till 1857.
BRITISH
PERIOD
INTRODUCTION
After the downfall of the Muslim rule,
Bristishers came to India and established the East Indian Company but soon the
reign of the government reached the hands of the British parliament. Britishers ruled over India for about 150
years. During this period western science and literature made good progress
through English medium.
CHARTER ACT OF 1813
The Charter Act of the East India
Company was renewed after every 20 years in the British parliament. In 1813,
when the company’s charter again came for renewal in the parliament, most of
the members in the parliament supported the movement led by the Christian
missionaries. As a result three articles were added in the charter act of 1813.
1) Missionaries of any European country
will have full freedom to visit India to propagate Christianity and to expand
education there
2) It will now be the responsibility of
East India company to organize education in the areas under its rule.
3) A sum of not less than one lakh of
rupees each year shall be set apart and applied to the revival and improvement
of literature and the encouragement of the learned natives of India and for the
introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the science among the inhabitant
of the British territories in India.
Anglicists - Orientalists controversy
The Anglicist - Orientalists controversy
had its origin in the charter Act 1813. The terms, ‘literature’ and the learned
natives were not clearly defined in the section 43 of the charter Act, 1813.
Orientalist Group
Mostly the senior and the experienced
officials of the company belonged to this group. According to them the term
‘literature’ meant Indian literature and the term ‘learned natives’ meant the scholars
of Indian literature
Anglicist Group
This group contained mostly the young
officials of the company. For them, the term ‘literature’ and learned natives
in the Charter Act, 1813 meant Western literature and the learned natives of
the western literature respectively.
MACAULAY MINUTE (1835)
The Anglicists and orientalists
controversy could not be solved even after 20 years in the new charter Act of
1833. On June 10, 1834 Lord Macaulay came to India as a law member of the
Governor General’s council. Lord William Bentick the then Governor General,
appointed him the president of the public instructions and asked him to render
his advise on three points -first –how to spend Rs. 10 lakh per annum on
education second to define the terms ‘literature’ and ‘learned native’ and
third to solve the anglicists - orientalists controversy Macaulay Submitted his
report on 1835, in that he mentioned.
1) the word ‘literature’ meant only
English literature and not Sanskrit or Arabic or Persian literature
2) The word ‘learned natives’ meant a
scholar who is learned in the Locke’s philosophy, Milton’s poetry that is
English literature.
WILLIAM BENTICK RESOLUTION
Lord Bentik seriously went through the
Macaulay’s report and declared the new education policy of the British Government
on March 7. 1835. The major declarations of this policy are
1) All government fund appropriated for
the purpose of education would be best employed on English education alone.
2) The educational institutions of
Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian shall not be closed down. The economic grants for
their teachers salary and students scholarship will continue as before.
3) In future no expenditure will be made
on the printing and publication of oriental literature.
4) The money so saved will be spend on
the education of the English language, literature and Western knowledge and
science.
DOWNWARD FILTRATION THEORY
This theory meant, “Education is to be
filtered to the common people. Drop by drop the education should go to the
common public so that at due time it may take the form of a vast stream which
remained watering desert of the society for long times and high class of people
should be educated and common people gain influence from them.”
Its Basic Causes:
1. The company needed various types of
workers to run the business and government. They wanted to have cheap servants
who work in different capacities.
2. The government did not have enough
money to take the responsibility of educating the masses.
3. If the standard of living and ideas
of the people of higher classes in society could be changed through the English
education then the people of the lower classes also be influenced and they
shall grow loyal to the British government.
4. If educated high class people are
given higher posts in government services then naturally they will use their
influence for controlling the masses from going against British government.
5. After educating some people, the
responsibility of education could be left to them.
WOOD’S
DESPATCH (1854)
INTRODUCTION
The company has to take orders after
every twenty years from the British parliament and in each order something was
written about the education in India. Therefore when time for the charter of
1853 came, the directors of the company thought for laying down a definite policy
in regard to educational matters of India. So a parliamentary committee was
appointed to survey the educational progress in India. As Mr. Wood was chairman
of the Board of Control, so the declaration was Christianized as ‘Wood’s
Educational Despatch’.
THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE DESPATCH ARE
AS FOLLOWS
1 The acceptance of Educational
Responsibility: The Despatch clearly accepted that the responsibility of
education in India lies in British Government.
2 The aim of education: The aim
of education is to raise intellectual fitness and moral character.
3 Courses of study: Mr. Wood had
recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian and recommended them
as subjects of study in regular Institutions. Finally, like Macaulay, he had
also recognized the usefulness of Western knowledge for Indians.
4 The Medium of Instruction: The
Despatch says that due to dearth of course books in Indian languages, the
medium of education should be English.
5
Department of Public Instruction: The Despatch
declared that in all the provinces, the department of public Instruction should
be set up. Its highest official should be designated as the Director of Public
Instruction, and he should be assisted by Deputy Director, Inspector and Deputy
Inspector of schools.
6 Establishment of Universities: The
Despatch has suggested for the setting up of the Universities at Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras.
7 Establishment of Regular
Institutions: The Despatch emphasized on the graded schools as follows,
primary schools, middle schools, high schools, colleges, universities.
8 Extension of Public Education: As
‘Filtration Theory’ failed, so Wood emphasized the useful education for the
public. As the public itself was unable to gain such an education. So increase
of primary, middle and high schools was emphasized. In order to co-ordinate education
at these various levels it was suggested to have scholarships and implement
other schemes.
9 Grant-in-aid system: The
Despatch suggested the Grant-in-aid System for the institutions which fulfilled
certain qualifications. He has also suggested that the rules and regulations
for Grant-in-aid should be framed on the levels practiced in England.
10 Training of the Teachers: They
suggested to open training schools in every province of India, as they are in
England was expressed in the Despatch. This was done, so that teaching work may
be conducted properly and efficiently.
11 Education of Women: He threw
light on women education too and praising the persons engaged in this pious
work, he suggested for its further encouragement through Grant-in-aid and other
measures. He has also approved the declaration of Governor General that the Government
should favorably assist the female education in India.
12 Muslim Education: Concerning
Muslim education, Mr. Wood has said that Muslims are too backward in education
and they should be encouraged to gain more education and efforts should be made
in this direction.
13 Vocational Education: They
paid more attention to the vocational education and suggested that schools and
colleges should be set up at suitable places to provide vocational education.
14 Encouragement of the Oriental
Education: Though the report has supported the western education through
English medium for the Indians, yet it has recommended for the development of
Indian literature and suggested that the books of western literature and science
should not only be translated in these languages, but original books should
also be caused to be written, and for the purpose the writers should be
rewarded and encouraged.
15 Education and Service: In this
reference, Mr. Wood has clearly said: A) While selecting the candidates for
Government service their academicals qualification should be considered well.
B) Academically, high qualified persons should be preferred more than the others
for government services.
CONCLUSION
Since the Wood’s Despatch has
contributed much to the organization and stabilization of the present Indian
educational system, it is called ‘A valuable Contribution to the history of
Indian Education
INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OR
HUNTER’ S COMMISSION (1882)
INTRODUCTION
Lord Rippon came to India on February 3,
1882. He appointed the first Indian Education commission. Mr. William Hunter, a
member of the viceroy’s Executive council, was the chairman of this commission.
It came to be popularly known as ‘Hunter’s commission’.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF HUNTER COMMISSION
1. PRIMARY EDUCATION
The policies of the Primary Education
·
Primary education should be useful for
general life of the people and the subjects which are helpful for him in his
practical life should be included.
·
Medium of instruction should be
vernacular or Indian languages.
·
Government should make a constant effort for
its progress, expansion and development.
·
Primary education should aim not only at
preparing the students to enter into higher education but it should aim at
spreading public education all right.
CURRICULUM
State should have a free hand to frame
the curriculum. In spite of this recommendation the commission said that physics,
Agriculture, first-aid, Banking, Geometry subjects that are of practical value
in life ought to be included in the curriculum of the primary education.
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
·
It suggested that the local bodies and
provincial government should give some aid for
This
·
Finances for the schools in the villages
and cities should be separated.
·
Local funds for education should in no
case be sent on secondary or higher education.
·
The commission had recommended that the
provincial Government shall give grant for primary education to the extent of 11/2 of the local fund for
education or 1/3 of the entire expenditure on this item.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRIMARY
INSTITUTIONS
The commission recommended that In order
to raise the standard of the primary institutions, the teachers should be
properly trained.
INDIGENOUS EDUCATION
·
No restriction should be imposed for
admission to such institutions.
·
Government should encourage such
institutions.
·
Such institutions may voluntarily hand
over administration to the Municipal Boards and District Boards.
·
The government should not interfere in
their curriculum in any way and special financial aid for inclusion of subject
of practical value in life may be given by the government.
·
Poor students should be given stipends and
scholarships.
·
Proper arrangement for the training of
the teachers of these institutions should also be made.
SECONDARY EDUCATION
·
The Government should give the
administration and organization of secondary education into hands of efficient
and able Indians.
·
The commission recommended two types of
curriculum called Curriculum A & B.
·
Curriculum A was to have subjects that
were to be useful for higher study.
·
Curriculum B was to have vocational,
occupational and practical subjects.
·
English should continue as medium of
instruction.
HIGHER EDUCATION
·
They recommended to have varied and vast
curricula so that the students can select the subjects of their choice and
aptitude.
·
Grant-in-aid is given to the colleges by
considering its expenditure, number of teachers, efficiency and local need.
·
Meritorious & promising students may
be sent to foreign countries for higher education on Government scholarship.
·
Teachers who have received education in
European Universities are preferred for appointment.
·
Private colleges should be authorized to
receive lesser fee as compared to Government colleges.
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
They recommended to
increase the number of inspectors in every province and Indians to be appointed
on the post of District inspectors of schools
SYSTEM OF GRANT-IN -AID
·
Changes and reform should be made in the
rule of grant-in-aid system according to the requirement of all the
institutions
·
All the changes must be send to the
managers of aided institutions in their vernacular languages.
·
Special educational officers should be
appointed to give counsel to the managers of Government aided institutions
EDUCATION OF THE WOMEN
·
Free education, appointment of lady
Teachers and lady Inspectresses
·
Liberal Grant-in-aid system
·
Different curriculum for girls
·
Decent arrangements of Hostels
·
Special arrangements for education of
‘Parda’ observing ladies
MUSLIM EDUCATION
·
Effort must be made to popularize Muslim
education
·
Special funds should be allocated for it
·
More scholarships should be given for
Muslim students
·
In government appointments, Muslims
should be given proportionate representation.
EDUCATION OF HARIJANS AND BACKWARD
CLASS.
·
All the schools run by the Government,
municipalities and local boards should admit children of Harijans and Backward
class.
·
Special schools should be open for them,
where there was an objection raised to the admission of these Harijans and
Backward children.
·
School teachers must take judicious
effects to remove caste prejudices.
EDUCATION OF ABORIGINALS AND HILL
TRIBES.
·
Government was expected to take up the
responsibility of educating aboriginals and Hill tribes.
·
Free education and the subjects taught
should be of the most elementary character.
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
·
Religious education of any sort should
not be given in the public schools.
·
Religious education may be imparted in
the private institutions and the government shall have nothing to do with it.
CONCLUSION
The Hunter commission was appointed
mainly to study the problem and development of primary education. But they made
suggestions in regard to the secondary, higher, women and modern education. It
was on the basis of suggestions of the commission a network of the primary
schools were spread throughout the country and the secondary and higher
education received a great impetus.
