Saturday, April 25, 2020

Unit V Policy frameworks on education: Pre-independent India


Unit V Policy frameworks on education: Pre-independent India

Education in India during Vedic Period
Introduction
 “India is the cradle of the human race. Most valuable and the most instructive materials in the history of man are treasured up in India only.”
Mark Twain
The most important contribution of ancient India not only for India but also for the world is in the field of education. The system of education which was developed during Vedic period is termed as the Vedic system of education. The administration and organization of education remained almost the same, throughout the Vedic period, but with the advancement of time, knowledge, art and skills, its curriculum and teaching methods underwent a change.
Sources of the Vedic Age Education:
The Vedic literature represents the most important and intrinsic part of life of the people of India. The following Vedic Literatures are the main Sources of the Vedic Age Education:
·        Four Vedas
·        Six Vedangas
·        Four Upvedas
·        Four Brahmanas
·        One hundred and eighty Upanishads
·        Six systems of philosophy
·        Bhagwad Gita
·        Three Smritis
Main Features of Vedic Education
Aims, Ideals and Objectives of Vedic Education
·        Immediate aim of education:- Vocational: The immediate aim of education, however, was to prepare the different casts of people for their actual needs of life
·        Ultimate aim of education-self-Realization:- Ancient Indians believed that education should prepare and individual in such a way as to prepare him to attain the objective of liberation, i.e. to be one with the almighty and to be free from the cycle of births and deaths.
·        Education for worldliness:- Vocational aim :- Happiness in other world was given more stress than the happiness in this world. This world according to them, was unreal and full of fetters. The highest wisdom was a release from these betters.
·        Character formation:- Education must from character. Mere intellect was not of worth if the person was devoid of not much morality. Morality or the right behavior was the higher “Dharma”. Education was regarded as a means of inculcating values such as strict obedience to elders, truthfulness, honesty and temperance.
·        Development of all round personality:- Ancient Indians believed that personality should be developed through education. Personality was developed through the following methods:-
o   Self-restraint
o   Self-confidence
o   Self-respect
o   Discrimination and judgement
·        Prepare for Social duties:- A student was not to lead self-centered life. He was to perform his duties as a son, as a husband, as a father and many other capacities conscientiously and efficiently in the society. His wealth was not for his own sake as for his family, he must be hospitable and charitable.
·        Promotion of Social Efficiency and Welfare:- Society had accepted the theory of division of work which was later on governed by the principle of heredity. Each family trained its children in its own profession. The purpose was to make each individual society efficient.
System of Education
Followed the Gurukula system of education and the teachers and pupil lived together and so identified themselves with one another.
Administration and Finance of Education
Students got free education in Ancient India. Society realized that “Vidyadana” or the gift in the cause of education was to be the best of gifts, possessing a higher religious merit than even the gift of land. The main Sources of Income were Donation, Dan, Guru Dakshina
The kings, emperors and affluent sections of the society voluntarily gave donations in the form of land, animals, grains, clothes, utensils, money of these gurugulas. The students begged alms from society of meet the day to day needs of the gurugulas. The another source of income of the gurugulas was guru dakshana. On the completion of education, students paid guru dakshina according to individual volition which could be land, animals, grains, clothes or money.
Curriculum:-
The curriculum of education during Vedic period was divided into two forms – Materialistic, Spiritual.
i. Material Curriculum
It included language, grammar, numerology, agriculture, cattle rearing, arts(music and dance), skills (weaving, dying, woodwork, metal work, craft), economics, politics, geology, physiology, snake science, logic, astrology, medical science, military science, exercise, exercise, gurukal organization.
ii. Spiritual Curriculum
It included education of Vedic literature (Four Vedas, Six Vedangas, Four Upvedas,  Four Brahmanas, One hundred and eighty Upanishads, Six systems of philosophy,  Bhagwad Gita and  Three Smritis),  theology and ethics and training in activities like control of sense organs, religion based conduct, mode of worship, evening prayers etc.
Method of teaching
There were three steps in instruction:
1. Sravana 2. Manana 3. Nididhyasana.
·        Sravana Oral Method is listening to words texts as they uttered by the teacher.
·        Manana Thinking Method is the process of deliberation or reflection of the topic taught.
·        Nididhyasana Manas (reflection) method represents the highest stage(research)
Method of study:- The method of study consisted in listening to the teacher, reflection on what has been listened to and its constant revision and discussion.
Medium of Instruction:- The medium of instruction was Sanskrit.
Role of Teachers
During Vedic period, very scholarly, self-studious, religious and persons of good character could become teachers. Besides being scholarly they used to have extreme self-control. They occupied the highest place in the society and were established as gods.
Duties of teachers towards students:
i.   To make arrangement for student’s lodging, food and clothing etc.
ii. To look after the health of the students and arrange treatment in case of falling ill.
iii. To compulsorily impart education in language, religion and ethics.
iv. To teach students good conduct and build their character.
v. To inspire students towards activities work doing and prevent them from undesirable
activities.
Role of Students
During Vedic period only unmarried students were admitted in gurugulas. The students were called Brahmachari. They had to observe celibacy, eat simple and pure food, wear simple clothes and to abstain from intoxications.
Students’ Duties towards teachers
i. To look after the cleanliness of gurugal and its complete arrangements.
ii. To clean the teacher’s residence and arrange for teacher’s worship.
iii. To seek alms for teacher and other residents of the gurukul.
iv. To massage the feet of the teacher before going to bed.
v. To abide by the orders of the teacher with devotion.
Teacher – Student Relationship
During Vedic period the teachers and students enjoyed a cordial relationship. The teachers considered the students as their son and the students regarded teachers as their father. Affection flowed from above and devotion steamed from below.
Teachers as Spiritual as well as Intellectual Guide
Teacher occupied a pivotal position in the Vedic System of education. The teacher was a parent surrogate (Parent Substitute), a facilitator of learning, exemplar and inspirer, confident, detector friend and philosopher moral educator, reformer, evaluator, character and personality builder, importer if knowledge and wisdom and above all a guru, religious and spiritual guide. Teacher was the spiritual father of his pupils. In addition to imparting intellectual knowledge to them, he was also morally responsible.
Students Discipline:- It was considered to be the best discipline. However
Corporal punishment was not altogether ruled out. Self-control and Self–Discipline were followed
Education of women:- In the earlier Vedic, and Upanishad times, girls were free to go through the “Upanayana’ ceremony , live a life of celibacy, studied Vedas, vedangas and other subjects along with their brother pupils.
The Vedas give a very honorable and respectable status to women. They were eligible for higher education for the study of the Vedas and the performance of administrative and other important jobs mostly performed by men even today. Boys should go to the schools meant for boys and girls should go to the schools where there are women teachers. The women should have opportunity to attain knowledge of the Vedas from all the four concerns.
Role of Travel in Education:- Travel was regarded as necessary to give a finish tough to education.
Admission and Evaluation System
There seems to be no direct reference available to spell out the methodology followed by the Acharya to judge the adequacy of knowledge of his pupils. Yaskas and Sayana, famous commentators on the Vedas, have inferred from the Rig Veda hymn that the students were given three grades as under:
1.      Maha Prazanan grade:- Students of very high ability.
2.      Madhyama Prazanan grade:- Students of high ability.
3.      Alpa Prazanan grade:- Students of low ability.
Autonomy of Educational Institutions
Teachers in the Vedic period were autonomous in their work and they followed various methods of admission and assessment. A teacher was the sole pedagogic authority to decide whether the student was fit for admission and also to decide whether he had completed his studies.
Studentship
There is a long hymn in the ‘Atharva Veda’ describing the ceremony pertaining to studentship. The initiation ceremony was called Upanayana which lasted three days. It laid down the foundation of a planned life. The pupil owed his first birth-physical to his parents and the second birth spiritual to his teacher. The rite of Upanayana was meant to purify body and mind and to make one fit for receiving education.
After ‘Upanayana’ the pupil entered into a state of ‘Brahmacharya’ indicating that it was a mode of life, and a system of education. The ‘Brahmachari’ as the aspirant for education was now called lived according to prescribed regulations, i.e., physical discipline as well as spiritual discipline.,
Discipline
Anthropology, Astronomy, Economics, Epistemology, Eschatology, Ethnology, Geology, Human eugenics, Mathematics and Military Science are the main Discipline.
The system of education was well-organized. It was suited to the needs of the society education was considered as the greatest gift in ancient India. It was aimed at the development of personality of an individual to his maximum extent. Education helped in the realization of spiritual and moral values, besides preparing for worldly pursuits. It was freely available to all those who wanted the relations between teachers and the pupils were based on love and affection. They were very cordial and intimate.
Merits and Demerits of Vedic Education
Merits
  • Education was free for all eligible learners.
  • Teaching-learning process took place in natural surroundings.
  • Pupils lived a simple and pure life of ‘Brahmacharya’
  • There was intimate relationship (like that of father and son) between the teacher and the taught.
  • The teacher, without any expectations from his pupils or their families, provided education by teaching what all he knew.
  • Teachers commanded high respect and dignity from all the sections of the society.
  • All pupils were treated alike irrespective of their social status.
Demerits
  • Education was provided only to Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaisyas and denied to Sudhras.
  • Women education was not given any importance.
  • Medium of instruction was Sanskrit and not the language of the masses.
  • Some considered the service rendered by pupils in the household activities of the teacher, as slavery.
  • Vedas were given undue importance in the curriculum.
Conclusion
In retrospect it may be said that the Vedic system of education was the best system of education in contemporary world but from the point of view of the present Indian society some of its aspects are worth adopting, while some are to be given up.

Education during Buddhist Period
Introduction
Buddhism was born in India and was started by Gautama Buddha who was an Indian prince of Sakya Dynasty of Kshatriyas. In fact, he gave a new form to the religion. The monasteries were the centers of education during the Buddhist period. Besides monasteries, there were no other organizations for imparting education. Only the Buddhist could receive religious and other types of education. Other persons were deprived of this facility. There was no place for Yajna in the Buddhist system. Buddhist period in Indian education roughly starts from 600 B.C and last for about 1200 years till 600A.D. During Vedic period education was mostly individualistic effort whereas during Buddhist period institutional organization is one of the chief characteristics of education.
Buddhist education
Buddhist education was based on the teaching of Gautam Buddha. These teachings were so important that they remained a source of inspiration for individual as well as social development in India.
Aims of Education
The chief aims of Buddhist education had been the following :-
i. Development of education:- The chief aim of Buddhist education was all round development of child’s personality. This included his physical , mental, moral and intellectual development.
ii. Formation of character:- During this period, in the organization of education, special emphasis was laid on the formation of character of the students. Student life was hard and rigorous. They observed celibacy.
iii. Religious education:- In the Buddhist era, religion was given top priority and education was imparted through it. The chief aim of education was propagation of religion and inculcation of religious feelings and education served as a mean to achieve salvation or nirvana.
iv. Preparation for life:- In this system of education, there was a provision for imparting wordily and practical knowledge along with religious education so that when the students entered normal life they may be able to earn their livelihood.
v. Physical Development
According to Buddha, good health helps a man to escape from bodily suffering. So he gave importance for physical development.
vi. Development of knowledge
To achieve Nirvana, they emphasized on the development of true knowledge. In Buddhist period the practical knowledge of the material world and of the four noble truths were regarded as the true knowledge.
vii. Education of social behaviour
Buddhist religion is a supporter of human welfare. This is the reason that too much emphasis was placed upon compassion and kindness.
viii. Preservation and Development of human culture
Buddhist religion emphasizes the preservation of human culture as a whole. For that, they encourage the study of other religions, cultures and philosophies.
ix. Character formation
They gave too much importance on self control compassion and kindness and those who practice, these ideals possess good character.
x. Vocational Development
To overcome the sufferings of hunger, education of art, skills and vocation is necessary.
xi. Education of Buddhist religion
Students were trained in the eight fold path namely-Right view, Right resolve, Right occupation, Right speech, Right behaviour, Right effort, Right contemplation and Right meditation to achieve salvation
Principle or Four noble truths of Buddhisim
Buddha was primarily an ethical teacher and reformer, not a metaphysician. The message of his enlightenment points to man the way of life that leads beyond suffering. The four noble truths are:-
(1) There is suffering.
(2) There is cause of suffering (Dukhasamaudaya).
(3) There is cessation of suffering (Dukhanirodha).
(4) There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering (Dukhanirodh- marg).
Pabbaja Ceremony
Pabbaja was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries. Pabbaja means going out. According to this ceremony the students after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his worldly and family relationship. An individual belonging to any caste could be admitted to a monastery and after being admitted he did not belong to any caste. For pabbaja ceremony the individual had to get his head fully shaved and put on yellow clothes.
In this shape he was presented before the presiding Bhikshu. On presentation this individual would pray for admission to the monastery. On his prayer the head Bikshu would administer three basic advices:
(1) I take refuse with Budha.
(2) I take refuge with religion.
(3) I take refuge with the order.
The aspirant for admission used to pronounce these advices very distinctly. Then his admission was permitted. On being admitted the individual was called a Sharman.
Upasampada Ceremony
After pabbaja the Buddhist monk had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony. It was after receiving education for twelve years, that it is at the age of twenty years, Upasampada ceremony was performed. The Sharman has to present himself in front before all other monks of the monastery. One could be admitted for this ceremony only when the majority of the monks voted in favour of the same. After this ceremony the Sharman was regarded as full- fledge member of the monastery. On this occasion all his worldly and family relationships ended.
Curriculum
In Buddhist education primary, higher and Bhikshu education were organized in Maths and Vihars and as they were under the control of Buddhist Sanghs.
i. Curriculum of primary Education
Duration of primary education was 6 years. Reading, writing, five different sciences namely Morphology, Astronomy, Medicine, logic and spirituality were taught.
ii. Curriculum of Higher Education
Duration of higher education was generally of 12 years. During this period a general knowledge of grammar, religion, astrology, ayurved and philosophy was imparted to students. Special education included Pali, Prakit and Sanskrit languages along with their grammar and literature and such subjects as astrophysics, cosmology, jurisprudence, political science, economics, arts, skills, vocations, architecture, Buddhist, Jain and Vedic religions, theology, logic.
iii. Curriculum of Bhikshu Education
Duration of Bhikshu education was 8 years but those Bhikshu who intended to acquire higher knowledge in Buddhist religion and philosophy could continue their education further. Both worldly and religious education is concerned initially imparted but at higher level specialization in any of the field may be taken.
1. Worldly Curriculum
Reading, writing, mathematics arts, skills and vocational education
2. Religious curriculum
For General students Buddhist, Jain and Vedic religion were imparted. For the Bhikshu education, they had to study Buddhist literature namely Tripitak, Sulta, Vinay and Avidhamma pitak.
Method of Teaching
Buddhist education aimed at purity of character. Like Vedic education it was training for moral character rather than psychological development of the students. One has to attain the stage of Bodhisattva. Mental and moral development was emphasized. Following were the methods:-
1. Verbal education: Through the art of writing had been well developed up to Buddhist period yet, due to shortage and no availability of writing materials, verbal education was prevalent as it was in Vedic age. The teacher used to give lessons to the novices who learnt them by heart. The teacher used to put questions on the learning the lesson by heart.
2. Discussion: In order to win discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public, it was necessary to improve the power of discussion. This was also needed to satisfy the critics and opposing groups and establish one’s own cult. Thus, rules were framed for discussion.
3. Prominence of logic: The importance of discussion encouraged the logic in the Buddhist period. The controversial matters could not be decided without logical argument. Logic was also useful in the development of the mental power and knowledge.
4. Tours: The main of the Buddhist monks was to propagate Buddhism .Hence some Acharyas like Sariputta, Mahayaggalva, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc gave the importance to tours for educating people.
5. Conference: Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1st day of month in the Budhist sanghs. The monks of different sanghs assembled and put forward their doubts freely. The attendance of every monk was compulsory in such conference.
6. Meditation in solitude: Some Buddhist monks were more interested in isolated spiritual meditation in lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely meditation that had fully renounced the worldly attraction and had spent enough time in the sanghs and had gained the efficiency for solitary medications.
Assembly of Learned People
On the beginning and close of every month learned people used to assemble together. The purpose of this assembly was to maintain the moral standards of all the monks, because the total education was based on morality. It was compulsory for all the monks to be present in this assemble so much so that even ill monks used to try to attend it anyhow. If due to illness it was not possible for monk to come, then assembly was held near his residence. This assembly was quite democratic and it has immense moral impact on all concerned.
The Nature of Mass Education
The monasteries or Buddha Vihars were the chief centres of learning and only the Buddhist monks could be admitted to them for education. Thus there was no planned arrangement for mass education as such during the period. It forms this position it would be wrong to construct that the Buddhist monks were unmindful of the education of the people in general. So at the time of begging alms the monks used to remove the religious doubts of the people through their interesting conversation or short and alp lectures. Thus the people in general received moral and religious education from the monks.
Women Education
Women education during the Buddhist period was at its lowest ebb, as the women folk were despised in the sense that Lord Buddha had regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised during his regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised during his life time not to admit women in monasteries. But after some time due to the insistence of his dear pupil Anand, Buddha had permitted about 500 women along with his stepmother for admission in vihars with many restriction and reservation.
Vocation Education
Vocation education was not ignored during the Buddhist system of education. The monks of Vihar were taught spinning, weaving and sewing in order that they meet their clothing requirement. They were taught architecture as well. Education in architecture enabled them to build up new Vihars or repair the old ones. Similarly the householders following Buddhism but living outside Vihar were given training in different type of and also earn their livelihood.
Discipline
Both teacher and students must follow the rules of Buddhist Sanghs Strictly. Generally twice a month teacher and students met at a specific place for introspection and to confess. Corporal punishment was abhorred in that period.
Role of Teacher in Buddhist System
Budhist philosophy admit the possible of attaining peace here and now, though, it start with a pessimistic note. Teacher, therefore, need not have any cry of despair. Bhikshus were the teacher. Budhist vihar as or monasteries have their methods of Imitation and training for the apprentices. The preceptor must give his disciple, all possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance. There was mutual esteem between the teacher and the pupil. There relations were like father and son. The teacher was regarded as spiritual father or intellectual father of the student.
During Budhist period the place of teacher in the scheme of education was very important. There were the categories of teachers – Acharyas and Upadhayas. According to Sutras Literature Acharya may admit according to his unfettered discretion, a number of pupils, who would have to live with him at this house, for a minimum period of twelve years. He would not accept any fees from the pupils under this instruction. The progress shown by pupil was the only factor that determined the continence of his apprenticeship.
Qualification of Teachers
1) 8 years of Bhikshu education after 12 years of higher education
2) to adopt Buddhism
3) life long celibacy
4) strict adherence to the sangh discipline
These teachers had to make arrangements of boarding and food for their students, impart knowledge to them and guide them to overcome worldly attachments.
Responsibility of Teacher
Both the teacher and the student were responsible to the monastery or the Buddhist order. But regarding education, clothes, food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was wholly responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student whenever he fell ill. The teacher used to bestow all the affection to his student and used to educate his through lecture and question answer method.
Student in Buddhist System of Education
The Buddhist system like the Brahmanical, enjoins upon the pupil the duty of serving this preceptor as a part of education. The pupils is to rise early in morning from the bed and give his teacher teeth-cleaner and water to rinse his mouth with; then, preparing a seat for him, serve him rice- milk in rinse his mouth with; then, preparing as seat for him, serve him rice milk in rinsed jug, and after his drinking it, wash the vessel and sweep the place. Afterwards he is to equip him for his begging round by giving him fresh undergarments, girdle, his two upper garments, and his alms- bowl rinsed and filled with water and then is to dress and equip himself similarly if he wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near him. He is not to interrupt his teacher in speaking, even if he makes a mistake. There were also rules for the expulsion of a pupil by his teacher. In five cases a Saddhiviharika ought to be turned away; when he does not feel great affection for his Upajjhaya, nor great inclination towards him, nor much shame, nor great reverence, nor great devotion.
Students in Buddhist period were termed as Shraman or Samner. They had to compulsorily reside in Maths and vihars. They had to get up early in the morning before teachers and had to make arrangements for their morning prayers. Students unable to pay fees for higher education had to contribute manual service.
Daily routine of Students (Diuchariya)
The student was expected to serve his teacher with all devotion. On rising in the morning the student will arrange everything for the daily routine of the teacher. He will cook his food and clean his clothes and utensils. Whatever he acquired through begging alms, he would place before teacher. The student had to prepare himself to receive education at any time whenever the teacher required him.
Expulsion of pupils
The teacher of a Buddhist monastery was empowered to expel any student on charge of misconduct or any type of serious disobedience. However, the student was expelled only when it was definitely ascertained that he lacked faith and respect for the teacher and the other things related to the sanctity of the monastery. After the death of the teacher or when the teacher changed his religion or left the monastery for elsewhere, the students also deserted the monastery. The education of the concerned students ended then and there.
Teacher- Taught Relationship
Teachers were like father figure to students. They generally looked after the administration of maths and vihars and organized teaching work while students carry out the different tasks as advised by their teachers.
Conclusion
In retrospect we may say that the foundation of modern Indian system of education was laid down in Vedic system of education but the complete structure that is central administration, school education, group teaching, was laid in the Buddhist system of education.
Jain System of Education
Jinas or Tirthankars are founders of Jainism. There were twenty three teerthankaras before Mahaveera, who was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha (6th century BCE) and is credited with formulation of a sect known as Jainism.
Division in Jainism
Jainism is divided into two sects of Swetambara and Digambara. The Swetambara monks wear white and Digambara ascetic who practice extreme renunciation have to discard even the last piece of cloth or the barest necessity of life, to overcome worldly binding. The followers of Lord Mahaveer compiled a collection of his teachings in a book form. This book has been divided mainly into two parts—Swetamber and Digamber.
Principles of Jainism
·        The literal meaning of Jaina refers to a person who has overcome his sensual vices and has obtained full control over his wordly desires.
·        Jainas laid great stress on right knowledge and right conduct for self realization.
·        This system stressed five principles for a virtuous conduct. These principles are non-violence truth, non-stealing, Brahmacharya and Giving away of superfluous wealth to others.
Aims of Education
Jain system recommended liberation as the ultimate aim of education. According to this system liberation is of two types i.e., Jivan Mukti and upper level is Dravya Mukti. Education should help the student to do such karmas which leads towards Jivan Moksha, which again will lead towards the higher level Dravya moksha. Thus this system stresses social, economic, moral and spiritual aims of education.
Curriculum
Tri-ratna or three Jewels (Right faith, Right knowledge and Right character)
Jaina curriculum includes social sciences, natural sciences, moral education, vocational education and various cocurricular activities and yoga exercises.
Concept of Values
The escape of the Jiva from matter is liberation according to Jain Philosophy. The Jaina system has suggested way of obstructing the entry of karma. It is essential to sacrifice bad qualities like attachment etc. and to have Nididhyasana. This makes the mind flexible and pure and the Jiva can recognize the ‘soul’ situated in its own body. With this the person endeavoring is bereft
Methods of Teaching
·        Experimental method and learning by doing method.
·        Discussion method and to maximise student participation in the teaching learning process.
·        Jaina system also emphasised group activities. For this group projects, self control, sense of responsibility towards their nation were stressed by the Jaina methods of teaching
·        Work oriented education and Vocational education must provide
·        Practical knowledge or work experience to the students.
·        socialized techniques, experiments, learning by doing, co-ordination etc
Language
Sanskrit and Prakrit
Method of Learning
Self-study was given due importance and a student is shown as reading a palm-leaf book with great attention. The method of learning various subjects was traditional, i.e., memorizing repeating, and reproducing. Vada or discussion formed the main platform in Jaina system and training was given in oratory. Most of the famous preceptors were great orators and established supremacy of Jainism over other sects by arguing, disputing, and discussing logically.  Tarkasasatra or science of logic occupied prominent place in Jaina syllabus.
Jaina guru or Teacher
 A Jaina guru was the most respected in the Jaina community and we have a good deal of pictorial evidence. Sculptures depicting teachers imparting lesson are several. Stools to keep the palm-book ready are depicted in numerous sculptures.
Great teacher of Jainism
Great ascetic teacher of Jainism like Kondakunda, Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Jinasena, Puspadanta and Somadeva etc. hailed from Karnataka and their works in Sanskrit and Prakrit are studied throughout India. Jainism, unlike Buddhism continues to flourish over centuries in this land.
Jaina students
Jaina students devotedly listen to an ascetic teacher under the shade of a tree.
Jaina monasteries
The Jaina monasteries had libraries of palm-leaf books and many secular subjects besides Jaina agamas or holy texts. There were texts of other languages and regions as well. Many more old and rare manuscripts are stored in the libraries of well-known Jaina monasteries. But these are not easily available to scholars who are of non-Jaina faith.
The Jaina monastic life was well organized. After getting admission, a supervisor, known as the niryapaka kept a watch on the behavior of each and every student. Wrongdoers were admonished in time and waywardness punished. Rigorous training and study awaited the incumbents. They had to make their own arrangements for day-to-day needs and beg for food. Spicy food was to be avoided. Training was given to control basic instincts like anger, joy, and sorrow and show calmness to all creatures under all circumstances.
Besides food and shelter, books were distributed free. Medical instruction was also imparted at the free hospitals attached. Hospitals big and small were attached to Jaina mathas of his pain.
Development of education during the pre-independent period
Education during Islamic Period
Introduction
During medieval period Muslim rulers started a new system of education which is popularly known as Maktab-Madarsha system of education. Side by side the old Pathashala system also continued for Hindu students. The period under review covers the system of education in India from about the 10th century A.D. to the middle of the 18th century, i.e. before the British rule. We shall discuss the Maktab-Madarsha system of education that is Muslim system of Education in detail.
Aims of Education
·        Spread of Islamic Culture & Islamic Religion
·        Enabling the individual for Islamic life
·        Preparing the students for the next world
·        Equipping the students for a vocation
·        Development of knowledge
·        Development of character and morality
·        Loyalty to the Government
·        Education of Arts, skills and Vocations
Types of institutions:
1.      Maktab system or Primary Muslim Education: Primary education was imparted through the ‘Maktab’ which were attached with mosque. Most of the Maktabs were either patronized by rulers or had endowment. They dependent on the charity of the philanthropist.
Age of admission: At the age of four years, four months and four days, ‘Maktab’ ceremony or ‘Bismillah’ was performed to indicate the beginning of the child. ‘Surah-i-Iqra’ a chapter from the holy Quran was recited on this occasion.
2.      Madrasahs system or Secondary and high education: Secondary and high educations were functioned in ‘Madrasahs’. Countryside as the centre of education: By and large, educational institutions flourished in the countryside
3.      Vocational education: Provision was also made for vocational, technical and professional education. Emperor Akbar took considerable interest in education as is evident from the passage of from the ‘Ain-in-Akbar’.
Curriculum
Curriculum at the primary level: Knowledge of alphabets, 30th section of Quran, reading, writing, mathematics, letter and application writing and the way of conversation, proper pronunciation and good handwriting
Curriculum at the higher level: The curriculum was divided into two categories namely-worldly and religious.
Worldly curriculum: Arabic and Persian languages and their Literature, Mathematics, Geometry, History, Geography, Economics, Political Science, Astrology, Islamic law, Unani Medicine and various arts, skills and vocations
Religious curriculum: Quran, Islamic history, Islamic literature, Sufi literature and Islamic law.
Language:
Arabic and Persian languages were mostly compulsory. For getting high government posts, one had to learn these languages.
Fees:
There were several village schools where the students were required to pay their instructions, not in cash but in kind.
Education of sons of Nobles and Rulers: The Muslims nobles as well as rulers engaged tutors to teach their children at home.
Monitorial system: Although a teacher did not have many pupils to teach yet, still the teacher would take the help of senior and advanced students to teach the younger or the junior.
Methods of teaching
·        Wooden books (taktis) were used
·        Individualized instructions were followed
·        Calligraphy: beautiful and fine handwriting was an important element of instruction
·        Religious Instruction
·        Imitation, practice and memorization
·        Self study method was also adopted for higher level
·        To teach the activity oriented subjects, arts, skills and other vocations Demonstration, Experiment and practice method were adopted
Teachers (USTAD):
People well versed in Islamic religion and Scholars of Arabic or Persian or other subjects could become teachers. They receive high salary and they possessed high status in the society.
Students (SHAGIRD):
The students lived under the strict control and discipline of the teachers. They lived in a highly authoritative and oppressive condition. They lead a sophisticated life in the hostels. In hostel they had very good infrastructure facilities and very delicious food was provided.
Teacher-Taught Relationship
Teacher loved their students and taught them with great concern. Students also respected their teachers and obeyed them devotedly. The practice of living with the teacher was not as common with the Muslim as it was in the case of Brahmanic and Buddhist period
Discipline: Punishments were quit severe. Corporal punishment was given and at the same time there was a provision of reward for disciplined students.
Initial educational work of the European Christian Missionaries
Introduction
India has been a centre of attraction to foreigners since ancient period. In 1448, Vasco-de-Gama, discovered the sea route to India. Portuguese Christian missionaries were the pioneers to introduce modern system of education. The Dutch, French and Danish missionaries also continued but at the end British missionaries succeeded everyone. But the British were succeeded in establishing themselves in India.
Educational work of the Portuguese Christian Missionaries
·        In 1498 Vasco-da-Gama, the Portuguese sailor discovered the sea route to India.
·        In 1510 the Portuguese established their rule over Goa.
·        In 1556 they set up a printing press in Goa.
·        In 1575 they established a Jesuit college in Goa.
·        In 1577 St. Ann College at Bombay.
·        Portuguese were focused on propagation of Christianity, culture and educational institutions.
·        “Saints Francis Xavier and Robert-de-nobli” were well known missionaries
·        Portuguese missionaries established primary schools first.
·        They taught Portuguese, Latin, local language, mathematics, grammar, logic, logic crafts, music and education of Christianity.
·        They started printing religious books and text books in their own press.
·        Textbooks, clothing and food were provided freely to the poor students.
·        Started primary schools in Daman, Diu, Hoogly, Chatgaon, Cochin and Bombay
·        Started modern primary education and modern higher education in India.
·        Akbar impressed by the Jesuit fathers and established a Jesuit college at Agra. But the Portuguese’s cast their eyes on Delhi. Emperor Shahjahan drove them out in 1662.
·        Portuguese are regarded as the founder of European system of education in India.
Educational work of the Dutch Christian missionaries
·        Dutch traders from Holland entered India in the mid of 17th century.
·        They established trading centers along the sea cost in Chinsura and Hoogly in Bengal and Nagapattinam and Billipattm in Madras.
·        Dutch missionaries had also missionaries accompanied them.
·        They established primary schools to educate children of both, the Dutch and Indian citizens working in Dutch factories as well as Indians also.
·        They taught Dutch, local languages, geography, mathematics and local arts and skills on European pattern in these schools.
·        They refrained from making these schools the centre of religious education. “Due to enmity with the British” they had to leave India soon.
Educational work of the French Christian Missionaries
·        The French traders entered into India in 1667.
·        They too had brought French Christian missionaries.
·        French established factories in Mahe, Yanam, karaikal, Chandernagore and Pondicherry.
·        They established primary schools near their factories.
·        In the hands of Missionaries the schools were entrusted.
·        The medium of education was French and local languages.
·        French and Indian teachers were appointed in the schools.
·        Education of Christian religion, French and was compulsory.
·        Christian missionary was inevitably appointed in each school to instruct religious education. Established education in secondary school in Pondicherry.
·        Faced the enmity with British people in three Carnatic wars they had to leave India.
·        Back to square one British took over the position.
Educational work of the Danish Christian Missionaries
·        In 1680 the Danish traders and missionaries reached India.
·        They established their factories in Serampore, Travancore, Tanjore and Thrichirapalli.
·        They too in line with the thinking of previous missionaries i.e nothing but propagation of Christianity.
·        To propagate christiaity they established primary schools in Travancore, Tanjore and Madras and the organization of the schools were given to the missionaries.
·        The medium was local language and education of Christianity was compulsory.
·        They translated bible into Tamil language and set up printing press to print Bible in Tamil.
·        They converted 5000 Tamilians into Christians.
·        In 1716, they established a Teacher Training College in Travancore, pioneer of starting teacher training college in India.
·        The medium was multi-lingual.
·        They failed to succeed in trade and commerce and at last sold the factories to British people and returned to their country, Denmark.
Educational work of the British Christian Missionaries
·        They have contributed a lot to the development of modern system of English Education.
·        East India Company came to India 1613.
·        Every British ship was accompanied by a Missionary.
·        The only aim the missionaries had to propagate Christianity and British culture.
·        They made Bengal their centre for this work.
·        They started this work in two methods; one through education, other is service to the poor and infirmed.
·        The missionaries were supported by Britain and East India company for financial assistance and patronage.
·        They established many charity based schools in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
·         There were two types of these schools.
·        The first, medium of education was English and second, the medium was local languages.
·        But the education of Christianity was compulsory to both types of schools. Missionary work was bit slower in the beginning.
·        After the Charter Act 1695, East India Company permitted missionary fathers to run schools in the British cantonments.
·        As a result missionaries took up the task and established hundreds of primary schools in
·        Bengal, Bombay and Madras (1731).
·        They established secondary schools in Madras. Education of Christianity was made compulsory in all these schools.
·        Simultaneously East India Companies hand soared high due to the internal conflicts between the emperors of India.
·        There was a bill against propagating religion in schools.
·        By that way missionaries established a lot of schools in various places in India.
·        There were three Christian controversial missionaries who published a book titled to
·        Address to Hindus and Muslims.
·        In that book they expressed their own views and the experiences with the people who practice Hinduism and Islam.
·        General Lord Minto arrested the missionary, seized all the rights of the press and banned the books.
·        To oppose this act by the General, two groups were formed in British parliament.
·        One group supported the act and other against. In 1813, missionaries were given permission to visit India without any restriction to organize education.
·        Even though Christian missionaries established institutions to propagate Christianity in India, they have contributed an enormously contributed for the development to the field of education in India.
·        They fixed the curriculum, prepared textbook, method of teaching and published them.
·        They introduced time-table, class system and examination system for class promotion.
·        East India Company had two ideas in this context 1. Propagate Christianity 2. Educate Indians. When they established themselves ruler of the country they executed their plan and accomplished it till 1857.

Education during British Period
Introduction
After the downfall of the Muslim rule, Bristishers came to India and established the East Indian Company but soon the reign of the government reached the hands of the British parliament.  Britishers ruled over India for about 150 years. During this period western science and literature made good progress through English medium.
Charter Act of 1813
The Charter Act of the East India Company was renewed after every 20 years in the British parliament. In 1813, when the company’s charter again came for renewal in the parliament, most of the members in the parliament supported the movement led by the Christian missionaries. As a result three articles were added in the charter act of 1813.
·        Missionaries of any European country will have full freedom to visit India to propagate Christianity and to expand education there
·        It will now be the responsibility of East India company to organize education in the areas under its rule.
·        A sum of not less than one lakh of rupees each year shall be set apart and applied to the revival and improvement of literature and the encouragement of the learned natives of India and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the science among the inhabitant of the British territories in India.
Anglicists - Orientalists controversy
The Anglicist - Orientalists controversy had its origin in the charter Act 1813. The terms, ‘literature’ and the learned natives were not clearly defined in the section 43 of the charter Act, 1813.
Orientalist Group
Mostly the senior and the experienced officials of the company belonged to this group. According to them the term ‘literature’ meant Indian literature and the term ‘learned natives’ meant the scholars of Indian literature
Anglicist Group
This group contained mostly the young officials of the company. For them, the term ‘literature’ and learned natives in the Charter Act, 1813 meant Western literature and the learned natives of the western literature respectively.
Macaulay Minute (1835)
The Anglicists and orientalists controversy could not be solved even after 20 years in the new charter Act of 1833. On June 10, 1834 Lord Macaulay came to India as a law member of the Governor General’s council. Lord William Bentick the then Governor General, appointed him the president of the public instructions and asked him to render his advise on three points -first –how to spend Rs. 10 lakh per annum on education second to define the terms ‘literature’ and ‘learned native’ and third to solve the anglicists - orientalists controversy Macaulay Submitted his report on 1835, in that he mentioned.
1.      The word ‘literature’ meant only English literature and not Sanskrit or Arabic or Persian literature
2.      The word ‘learned natives’ meant a scholar who is learned in the Locke’s philosophy, Milton’s poetry that is English literature.
William Bentick Resolution
Lord Bentik seriously went through the Macaulay’s report and declared the new education policy of the British Government on March 7. 1835. The major declarations of this policy are
1.      All government fund appropriated for the purpose of education would be best employed on English education alone.
2.      The educational institutions of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian shall not be closed down. The economic grants for their teacher’s salary and student’s scholarship will continue as before.
3.      In future no expenditure will be made on the printing and publication of oriental literature.
4.      The money so saved will be spending on the education of the English language, literature and Western knowledge and science.
Downward Filtration Theory
This theory meant, “Education is to be filtered to the common people. Drop by drop the education should go to the common public so that at due time it may take the form of a vast stream which remained watering desert of the society for long times and high class of people should be educated and common people gain influence from them.”
Its Basic Causes:
1.      The company needed various types of workers to run the business and government. They wanted to have cheap servants who work in different capacities.
2.      The government did not have enough money to take the responsibility of educating the masses.
3.      If the standard of living and ideas of the people of higher classes in society could be changed through the English education then the people of the lower classes also be influenced and they shall grow loyal to the British government.
4.      If educated high class people are given higher posts in government services then naturally they will use their influence for controlling the masses from going against British government.
5.      After educating some people, the responsibility of education could be left to them.
Wood’s Despatch (1854)
Introduction
The company has to take orders after every twenty years from the British parliament and in each order something was written about the education in India. Therefore when time for the charter of 1853 came, the directors of the company thought for laying down a definite policy in regard to educational matters of India. So a parliamentary committee was appointed to survey the educational progress in India. As Mr. Wood was chairman of the Board of Control, so the declaration was Christianized as ‘Wood’s Educational Despatch’.
The recommendations of the ‘Wood’s Educational Despatch’:
Ø  The acceptance of Educational Responsibility: The Despatch clearly accepted that the responsibility of education in India lies in British Government.
Ø  The aim of education: The aim of education is to raise intellectual fitness and moral character.
Ø  Courses of study: Mr. Wood had recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian and recommended them as subjects of study in regular Institutions. Finally, like Macaulay, he had also recognized the usefulness of Western knowledge for Indians.
Ø  The Medium of Instruction: The Despatch says that due to dearth of course books in Indian languages, the medium of education should be English.
Ø  Department of Public Instruction: The Despatch declared that in all the provinces, the department of public Instruction should be set up. Its highest official should be designated as the Director of Public Instruction, and he should be assisted by Deputy Director, Inspector and Deputy Inspector of schools.
Ø  Establishment of Universities: The Despatch has suggested for the setting up of the Universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
Ø  Establishment of Regular Institutions: The Despatch emphasized on the graded schools as follows, primary schools, middle schools, high schools, colleges, universities.
Ø  Extension of Public Education: As ‘Filtration Theory’ failed, so Wood emphasized the useful education for the public. As the public itself was unable to gain such an education. So increase of primary, middle and high schools was emphasized. In order to co-ordinate education at these various levels it was suggested to have scholarships and implement other schemes.
Ø  Grant-in-aid system: The Despatch suggested the Grant-in-aid System for the institutions which fulfilled certain qualifications. He has also suggested that the rules and regulations for Grant-in-aid should be framed on the levels practiced in England.
Ø  Training of the Teachers: They suggested to open training schools in every province of India, as they are in England was expressed in the Despatch. This was done, so that teaching work may be conducted properly and efficiently.
Ø  Education of Women: He threw light on women education too and praising the persons engaged in this pious work, he suggested for its further encouragement through Grant-in-aid and other measures. He has also approved the declaration of Governor General that the Government should favorably assist the female education in India.
Ø  Muslim Education: Concerning Muslim education, Mr. Wood has said that Muslims are too backward in education and they should be encouraged to gain more education and efforts should be made in this direction.
Ø  Vocational Education: They paid more attention to the vocational education and suggested that schools and colleges should be set up at suitable places to provide vocational education.
Ø  Encouragement of the Oriental Education: Though the report has supported the western education through English medium for the Indians, yet it has recommended for the development of Indian literature and suggested that the books of western literature and science should not only be translated in these languages, but original books should also be caused to be written, and for the purpose the writers should be rewarded and encouraged.
Ø  Education and Service: In this reference, Mr. Wood has clearly said: A) While selecting the candidates for Government service their academicals qualification should be considered well. B) Academically, high qualified persons should be preferred more than the others for government services.
Conclusion
Since the Wood’s Despatch has contributed much to the organization and stabilization of the present Indian educational system, it is called ‘A valuable Contribution to the history of Indian Education
Indian Education Commission or Hunter’s Commission (1882)
Introduction
Lord Rippon came to India on February 3, 1882. He appointed the first Indian Education commission. Mr. William Hunter, a member of the viceroy’s Executive council, was the chairman of this commission. It came to be popularly known as ‘Hunter’s commission’.
Recommendations of Hunter Commission
1. Primary Education
The policies of the Primary Education
·        Primary education should be useful for general life of the people and the subjects which are helpful for him in his practical life should be included.
·        Medium of instruction should be vernacular or Indian languages.
·         Government should make a constant effort for its progress, expansion and development.
·        Primary education should aim not only at preparing the students to enter into higher education but it should aim at spreading public education all right.
Curriculum
State should have a free hand to frame the curriculum. In spite of this recommendation the commission said that physics, Agriculture, first-aid, Banking, Geometry subjects that are of practical value in life ought to be included in the curriculum of the primary education.
Financial Administration
·        It suggested that the local bodies and provincial government should give some aid for
This
·        Finances for the schools in the villages and cities should be separated.
·        Local funds for education should in no case be sent on secondary or higher education.
·        The commission had recommended that the provincial Government shall give grant for primary education to the extent of 11/2 of the local fund for education or 1/3 of the entire expenditure on this item.
Establishment of the primary institutions
The commission recommended that In order to raise the standard of the primary institutions, the teachers should be properly trained.
Indigenous Education
·        No restriction should be imposed for admission to such institutions.
·        Government should encourage such institutions.
·        Such institutions may voluntarily hand over administration to the Municipal Boards and District Boards.
·        The government should not interfere in their curriculum in any way and special financial aid for inclusion of subject of practical value in life may be given by the government.
·        Poor students should be given stipends and scholarships.
·        Proper arrangement for the training of the teachers of these institutions should also be made.
Secondary Education
·        The Government should give the administration and organization of secondary education into hands of efficient and able Indians.
·        The commission recommended two types of curriculum called Curriculum A & B.
·        Curriculum A was to have subjects that were to be useful for higher study.
·        Curriculum B was to have vocational, occupational and practical subjects.
·        English should continue as medium of instruction.
Higher Education
·        They recommended to have varied and vast curricula so that the students can select the subjects of their choice and aptitude.
·        Grant-in-aid is given to the colleges by considering its expenditure, number of teachers, efficiency and local need.
·        Meritorious & promising students may be sent to foreign countries for higher education on Government scholarship.
·        Teachers who have received education in European Universities are preferred for appointment.
·        Private colleges should be authorized to receive lesser fee as compared to Government colleges.
Education Department
They recommended to increase the number of inspectors in every province and Indians to be appointed on the post of District inspectors of schools
System of grant-in -aid
·        Changes and reform should be made in the rule of grant-in-aid system according to the requirement of all the institutions
·        All the changes must be send to the managers of aided institutions in their vernacular languages.
·        Special educational officers should be appointed to give counsel to the managers of Government aided institutions
Education of the women
·        Free education, appointment of lady Teachers and lady Inspectresses
·        Liberal Grant-in-aid system
·        Different curriculum for girls
·        Decent arrangements of Hostels
·        Special arrangements for education of ‘Parda’ observing ladies
Muslim Education
·        Effort must be made to popularize Muslim education
·        Special funds should be allocated for it
·        More scholarships should be given for Muslim students
·        In government appointments, Muslims should be given proportionate representation.
Education of harijans and backward class
·        All the schools run by the Government, municipalities and local boards should admit children of Harijans and Backward class.
·        Special schools should be open for them, where there was an objection raised to the admission of these Harijans and Backward children.
·        School teachers must take judicious effects to remove caste prejudices.
Education of aboriginals and hill tribes
·        Government was expected to take up the responsibility of educating aboriginals and Hill tribes.
·        Free education and the subjects taught should be of the most elementary character.
Religious education
·        Religious education of any sort should not be given in the public schools.
·        Religious education may be imparted in the private institutions and the government shall have nothing to do with it.
Conclusion
The Hunter commission was appointed mainly to study the problem and development of primary education. But they made suggestions in regard to the secondary, higher, women and modern education. It was on the basis of suggestions of the commission a network of the primary schools were spread throughout the country and the secondary and higher education received a great impetus.
The Indian Universities Act, 1904
Lord Curzon became the Viceroy of India, he sought to introduce the reforms in education apart from other administrative reforms.

Main Provisions of Indian Universities Act, 1904

  • Universities were given the right of teaching along with the right of conducting examination.
  • Promotion of study and research, set up university laboratories and libraries
  • Number of Fellows of a university shall not be less than fifty or more than a hundred
  • The minimum number of  the Senate of the Universities was fifty and the maximum number was hundred. Their term was determined for five years.
  • Introduced election in the constitution of the Senate. 20 fellows are to be elected in the Universities of Madras, Calcutta and Bombay and 15 in other Universities.
  • Statutory recognition to Syndicates
  • The Government reserved the right to make amendments and give approval to the rules framed by the Senates. Hence, The Government control over the universities and had the  powers to veto.
  • The rules in regard to granting recognition were made more strict. In order to raise the standards of education, the Syndicate could call for the inspection of colleges The Government approval was necessary for grant of affiliation or disaffiliation of colleges.

Saddler University Commission (1917-19)
In 1917, the Government of India appointed a Commission to study and report on the problems of the Calcutta University following the enactment of The Universities Act of 1904.

Recommendations of the Saddler University Commission

  • In the opinion of the Saddler University Commission, it was not possible to bring about revolutionary changes in the field of higher education without making changes in secondary education. Therefore, some fundamental changes were suggested in the secondary education for the sake of improving the university education.
  • The Saddler University Commission recommended Intermediate Colleges.
  • The curriculum of these Intermediate colleges should constitute courses related to Arts, Science, Engineering, Industrial education etc.
  • After clearing the intermediate examination rather than the Matriculation Examination, the students would be entitled to enter the university.
  • The duration of the degree course after the intermediate state should be limited to three years.
  • Board of Secondary and Intermediate Education, be established and entrusted with the administration and control of Secondary Education.
  • The commission also recommended less rigidity in the framing the rules and regulations of the universities.
  • recommended an Inter University Board for coordinating the activities of Indian universities.
  • Autonomous institutions were to be given more encouragement.
  • Centralised residential-teaching universities were to be encouraged.
  • Women education was to be encouraged in a big way
  • Setting up the Department of Education at the Universities of Calcutta and Decca.
  • Recommended for the centralised unitary teaching autonomous bodies.

Hartog Committee (1929)
The Hartog committee 1929, had devoted more attention to mass education than the secondary and University education. It highlighted the problem of wastage and stagnation in education at the primary level.
Recommendations of Hartog committee 1929 for reforms in higher education
  • Recommendation for the establishment of some affiliating Universities
  • It recommended that the universities should appoint the teachers for the affiliated colleges.
  • It recommended controlling the admission process in universities on the basis of the capabilities and aptitude of students.
  • The recommendation was made to make the Honours course more advanced
  • Promotion of technical and commercial education by universities to control the problem of unemployment.
Recommendations of Hartog committee on education for reforms in Primary education
  • Dropout of students before the completion of a particular stage of education.
  • It recommended the policy of consolidation instead of multiplication of schools. The duration of the primary course was to be fixed to four years.
  • It recommended for the improvements in quality, pay, and service conditions of teachers
  • It recommended for the adjustment of school hours and holidays as per the local requirements.
  • It recommended for increasing the number of inspections
Reforms in Secondary Education
  • Large number of failures at the matriculation examination.
  • The committee recommended for the introduction of diversified courses in the middle schools to meet the requirements of the majority of students.
  • The diversion of more boys towards technical and commercial careers after the end of the middle stage.
  • Improvements in University education, education of women, minority education and education of backward classes etc.
  • Consolidation and stabilization of education.
  • Government’s effort to improve the quality of education.
However, these recommendations of hartog committee of 1929 remained only on paper and could not be implemented due to the great economic depression of 1930-31.

Characteristics of Basic Education And its relevance to the present day context
Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation gave ‘The Wardha Scheme of Education’ or ‘Basic Education’ for modern India, which can be called the first blue print of national system of education, which is job centered, value-based and mass oriented. It is the first model of vocationalisation of education in India. In Gandhian scheme of education, knowledge must be related to activity and practical experience. His scheme of education envisages, a close integration between the school and the community so as to make child more social and cooperative. This scheme was the first attempt to develop an indigenous scheme of education in British India by Mahatma Gandhi. As a nationalist leader he fully realized that the British system of education could not serve the socio-economic need of the country. So he had developed a complete philosophy of education for the whole country. He had worked out it after a good deal of experimentation based on his philosophy of truth and non-violence.
 Salient features of Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)
  • Free and compulsory education:  8 years (from 6 to 14 years). It was to be given in two stages, the junior stage covering 5 years and senior stage for 3 years.
  • Craft centered education: 
  • Self supporting education: It aimed to provide salaries of teachers. It would also ensure the dignity of labor along with livelihood for the students after leaving the school.
  • Medium of instruction:  Mother tongue. It would have helped to speak, read and write correctly and effectively and to develop precision of thought and clarity of ideas.
  • The idea of citizenship: the Wardha scheme aimed at providing the citizens of future an opportunity of personal growth, dignity, and efficiency in a cooperative community.
  • Flexible curriculum:  free to work according to their interest and requirement. There was no compulsion to complete a prescribed portion under the fear of examinations.
  • The various subjects were the basic craft, mother tongue, mathematics, Social Studies, painting, music, and sports etc. English was not included in the curriculum. However, it was mandatory to learn the Hindi language.
  • Religious education was not the part of the curriculum
Aims of Basic Education
·         Education should develop the qualities of an ideal citizen in the child, socially, politically, economically and culturally.
·         Education should develop love for Indian culture in the hearts of the educed.
·         All round development of the personality was considered. it must develop a child intellectually, socially, physically, morally, spiritually.
·         After completion of the education, they may be able to earn their livelihood and fulfill their needs.
Curriculum
·         Select one Basic Craft like Agriculture, spinning and weaving, woodcraft, fisheries, Leather work, Pottery or ceramics, fruit preservation or Gardening, any other craft according to the Geographical environment of the locality.
·         Mother tongue, Mathematics, Social studies, General Science, Nature study, Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Elementary Hygiene, Astronomy, Life stories of eminent scientists and inventories, Art (music or painting), Hindi, Home science-Girls, Physical Education.
Teachers
·         It emphasis on appointing female teachers in place of male teachers at the primary level.
·         It is necessary to appoint only trained teachers.
·         Long-term training (3years) and short term training (1 year) should be given.
Time-Table
·         boys shall have to devote 5 hours and a half for their study. It was also considered necessary to work for about 288 days in the year.
Methods Of Teaching
·         Education is imparted through activities and in short period of time the students are given knowledge of various and varied subjects.
·         Emphasis on activity based education
Basic education and its relevance to the present day context

With the advent of British colonial rule in India, an alien system of imperial education was introduced. This inevitably murdered the age-old, unique and all-inclusive holistic educational system in India. It has not only caused irreparable damage to Indian education system in the long run, but also created number of problems like communalism, exploitation of all kinds, class-consciousness, ever increasing crave for western materialistic life style,etc. Even the modern system of education acts as an instrument to increase the values of consumerism, materialism, undue competition and violence.

There has been an invasion of western culture in India through education with the help of recent electronic media revolution. The growing concern over the erosion of ethical values, youth unrest, ecological violence and increasing cynicism in society have brought to focus the need of revival of indigenous Indian heritage and life-style. Gandhiji could foresee such possible developments half a century ago and advocated a new alternative of Basic education. His Basic education takes up the challenging task of preparing the young learners to become morally sound, individually independent, socially constructive, economically productive and responsible future citizens. Besides giving a practicable scheme of education to the country as a great educationist, Gandhiji was exemplary of his educational philosophy in his life. He believed in the dictum; ‘An example is better than precept’ and this is the chief characteristics of a good teacher. He did what he meant and he meant what he did. Every act of his life was lesson to the world. Gandhiji could be classified as the top ranking educationist of his times. We can hardly find his match even today in our age.

Need of the hour is to reorient education so as to channelize the manpower in the right direction. In the reports of the various committees and commissions the need and the importance of education has been emphasized to make it vocational i.e. job oriented and productive for self-employment. With the serious problem of mounting educated unemployed young men and women, growing unrest among the students, re-orientation of the educational system on the spirit of Gandhian conception of education seems to be the need of the 21st century.

Thus, it is quite justified to say that the fundamental principles of basic education are still valid and fruitful in the context of our present educational reform. They are relevant to be used as guiding principles of modern education. In fact, it needs to be reformed on modern lines then it may serve as one of the most interesting and fruitful techniques of instruction at elementary stage