Unit
V Policy frameworks on education: Pre-independent India
Education
in India during Vedic Period
Introduction
“India is the cradle of the human race. Most
valuable and the most instructive materials in the history of man are treasured
up in India only.”
Mark Twain
The most important contribution of
ancient India not only for India but also for the world is in the field of
education. The system of education which was developed during Vedic period is
termed as the Vedic system of education. The administration and organization of
education remained almost the same, throughout the Vedic period, but with the
advancement of time, knowledge, art and skills, its curriculum and teaching
methods underwent a change.
Sources
of the Vedic Age Education:
The
Vedic literature represents the most important and intrinsic part of life of
the people of India. The following Vedic Literatures are the main Sources of
the Vedic Age Education:
·
Four Vedas
·
Six Vedangas
·
Four Upvedas
·
Four Brahmanas
·
One hundred and eighty Upanishads
·
Six systems of philosophy
·
Bhagwad Gita
·
Three Smritis
Main Features of Vedic
Education
Aims,
Ideals and Objectives of Vedic Education
·
Immediate
aim of education:- Vocational: The immediate aim of
education, however, was to prepare the different casts of people for their
actual needs of life
·
Ultimate
aim of education-self-Realization:- Ancient Indians
believed that education should prepare and individual in such a way as to
prepare him to attain the objective of liberation, i.e. to be one with the
almighty and to be free from the cycle of births and deaths.
·
Education for worldliness:- Vocational
aim :- Happiness in other world was given more stress than the happiness in
this world. This world according to them, was unreal and full of fetters. The
highest wisdom was a release from these betters.
·
Character formation:- Education
must from character. Mere intellect was not of worth if the person was devoid
of not much morality. Morality or the right behavior was the higher “Dharma”.
Education was regarded as a means of inculcating values such as strict
obedience to elders, truthfulness, honesty and temperance.
·
Development of all round
personality:- Ancient Indians believed that
personality should be developed through education. Personality was developed
through the following methods:-
o
Self-restraint
o
Self-confidence
o
Self-respect
o
Discrimination and judgement
·
Prepare for Social duties:- A
student was not to lead self-centered life. He was to perform his duties as a
son, as a husband, as a father and many other capacities conscientiously and
efficiently in the society. His wealth was not for his own sake as for his
family, he must be hospitable and charitable.
·
Promotion of Social Efficiency and
Welfare:- Society had accepted the theory of division of work
which was later on governed by the principle of heredity. Each family trained
its children in its own profession. The purpose was to make each individual
society efficient.
System
of Education
Followed the Gurukula system of
education and the teachers and pupil lived together and so
identified themselves with one another.
Administration
and Finance of Education
Students got free education in Ancient India. Society
realized that “Vidyadana” or the gift in the cause of education was to be the
best of gifts, possessing a higher religious merit than even the gift of land.
The main Sources of Income were Donation, Dan, Guru Dakshina
The kings, emperors and affluent
sections of the society voluntarily gave donations in the form of land,
animals, grains, clothes, utensils, money of these gurugulas. The students begged
alms from society of meet the day to day needs of the gurugulas. The another
source of income of the gurugulas was guru dakshana. On the completion of
education, students paid guru dakshina according to individual volition which
could be land, animals, grains, clothes or money.
Curriculum:-
The
curriculum of education during Vedic period was divided into two forms –
Materialistic, Spiritual.
i.
Material Curriculum
It included language, grammar,
numerology, agriculture, cattle rearing, arts(music and dance), skills
(weaving, dying, woodwork, metal work, craft), economics, politics, geology,
physiology, snake science, logic, astrology, medical science, military science,
exercise, exercise, gurukal organization.
ii.
Spiritual Curriculum
It included education of Vedic literature (Four
Vedas, Six Vedangas, Four Upvedas, Four
Brahmanas, One hundred and eighty Upanishads, Six systems of philosophy, Bhagwad Gita and Three Smritis), theology and ethics and training in activities
like control of sense organs, religion based conduct, mode of worship, evening
prayers etc.
Method
of teaching
There were three steps in instruction:
1. Sravana 2. Manana 3. Nididhyasana.
·
Sravana Oral Method is listening
to words texts as they uttered by the teacher.
·
Manana Thinking Method is the
process of deliberation or reflection of the topic taught.
·
Nididhyasana Manas (reflection)
method represents the highest stage(research)
Method
of study:- The method of study consisted in listening to the
teacher, reflection on what has been listened to and its constant revision and
discussion.
Medium
of Instruction:- The medium of instruction was Sanskrit.
Role
of Teachers
During Vedic period, very scholarly,
self-studious, religious and persons of good character could become teachers.
Besides being scholarly they used to have extreme self-control. They occupied the
highest place in the society and were established as gods.
Duties
of teachers towards students:
i.
To make arrangement for student’s
lodging, food and clothing etc.
ii.
To look after the health of the students
and arrange treatment in case of falling ill.
iii. To compulsorily impart education in language,
religion and ethics.
iv.
To teach students good conduct and build their character.
v.
To inspire students towards activities
work doing and prevent them from undesirable
activities.
Role
of Students
During Vedic period only unmarried
students were admitted in gurugulas. The students were called Brahmachari. They
had to observe celibacy, eat simple and pure food, wear simple clothes and to
abstain from intoxications.
Students’
Duties towards teachers
i. To look after the
cleanliness of gurugal and its complete arrangements.
ii. To clean the
teacher’s residence and arrange for teacher’s worship.
iii. To seek alms for
teacher and other residents of the gurukul.
iv. To massage the feet
of the teacher before going to bed.
v. To abide by the
orders of the teacher with devotion.
Teacher
– Student Relationship
During Vedic period the teachers and
students enjoyed a cordial relationship. The teachers considered the students
as their son and the students regarded teachers as their father. Affection
flowed from above and devotion steamed from below.
Teachers
as Spiritual as well as Intellectual Guide
Teacher occupied a pivotal position in
the Vedic System of education. The teacher was a parent surrogate (Parent
Substitute), a facilitator of learning, exemplar and inspirer, confident,
detector friend and philosopher moral educator, reformer, evaluator, character
and personality builder, importer if knowledge and wisdom and above all a guru,
religious and spiritual guide. Teacher was the spiritual father of his pupils.
In addition to imparting intellectual knowledge to them, he was also morally
responsible.
Students
Discipline:- It was considered to be the best
discipline. However
Corporal punishment was not altogether
ruled out. Self-control and
Self–Discipline were followed
Education
of women:- In the earlier Vedic, and Upanishad
times, girls were free to go through the “Upanayana’ ceremony , live a life of
celibacy, studied Vedas, vedangas and other subjects along with their brother
pupils.
The Vedas give a very
honorable and respectable status to women. They were eligible for higher
education for the study of the Vedas and the performance of administrative and
other important jobs mostly performed by men even today. Boys should go to the
schools meant for boys and girls should go to the schools where there are women
teachers. The women should have opportunity to attain knowledge of the Vedas
from all the four concerns.
Role
of Travel in Education:- Travel was regarded as necessary
to give a finish tough to education.
Admission and Evaluation System
There
seems to be no direct reference available to spell out the methodology followed
by the Acharya to judge the adequacy of knowledge of his pupils. Yaskas and Sayana,
famous commentators on the Vedas, have inferred from the Rig Veda hymn that the
students were given three grades as under:
1.
Maha Prazanan grade:- Students of very
high ability.
2.
Madhyama Prazanan grade:- Students of
high ability.
3.
Alpa Prazanan grade:- Students of low
ability.
Autonomy
of Educational Institutions
Teachers in the Vedic period were
autonomous in their work and they followed various methods of admission and
assessment. A teacher was the sole pedagogic authority to decide whether the student
was fit for admission and also to decide whether he had completed his studies.
Studentship
There is a long hymn in the ‘Atharva
Veda’ describing the ceremony pertaining to studentship. The initiation
ceremony was called Upanayana which lasted three days. It laid down the
foundation of a planned life. The pupil owed his first birth-physical to his
parents and the second birth spiritual to his teacher. The rite of Upanayana
was meant to purify body and mind and to make one fit for receiving education.
After ‘Upanayana’ the pupil entered into
a state of ‘Brahmacharya’ indicating that it was a mode of life, and a system
of education. The ‘Brahmachari’ as the aspirant for education was now called
lived according to prescribed regulations, i.e., physical discipline as well as
spiritual discipline.,
Discipline
Anthropology, Astronomy,
Economics, Epistemology, Eschatology, Ethnology, Geology, Human eugenics, Mathematics
and Military Science are the main Discipline.
The system of education
was well-organized. It was suited to the needs of the society education was
considered as the greatest gift in ancient India. It was aimed at the development
of personality of an individual to his maximum extent. Education helped in the realization
of spiritual and moral values, besides preparing for worldly pursuits. It was
freely available to all those who wanted the relations between teachers and the
pupils were based on love and affection. They were very cordial and intimate.
Merits
and Demerits of Vedic Education
Merits
Merits
- Education
was free for all eligible learners.
- Teaching-learning
process took place in natural surroundings.
- Pupils
lived a simple and pure life of ‘Brahmacharya’
- There was
intimate relationship (like that of father and son) between the teacher
and the taught.
- The
teacher, without any expectations from his pupils or their families,
provided education by teaching what all he knew.
- Teachers
commanded high respect and dignity from all the sections of the society.
- All pupils
were treated alike irrespective of their social status.
Demerits
- Education
was provided only to Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaisyas and denied to
Sudhras.
- Women
education was not given any importance.
- Medium of
instruction was Sanskrit and not the language of the masses.
- Some
considered the service rendered by pupils in the household activities of
the teacher, as slavery.
- Vedas were
given undue importance in the curriculum.
Conclusion
In retrospect it may be said that the
Vedic system of education was the best system of education in contemporary
world but from the point of view of the present Indian society some of its
aspects are worth adopting, while some are to be given up.
Education
during Buddhist Period
Introduction
Buddhism
was born in India and was started by Gautama Buddha who was an Indian prince of
Sakya Dynasty of Kshatriyas. In fact, he gave a new form to the religion. The
monasteries were the centers of education during the Buddhist period. Besides
monasteries, there were no other organizations for imparting education. Only
the Buddhist could receive religious and other types of education. Other
persons were deprived of this facility. There was no place for Yajna in the
Buddhist system. Buddhist period in Indian education roughly starts from 600
B.C and last for about 1200 years till 600A.D. During Vedic period education
was mostly individualistic effort whereas during Buddhist period institutional
organization is one of the chief characteristics of education.
Buddhist
education
Buddhist education was based on the
teaching of Gautam Buddha. These teachings were so important that they remained
a source of inspiration for individual as well as social development in India.
Aims of Education
The chief aims of Buddhist education had
been the following :-
i. Development of education:-
The chief aim of Buddhist education was all round development of child’s
personality. This included his physical , mental, moral and intellectual development.
ii. Formation of character:-
During this period, in the organization of education, special emphasis was laid
on the formation of character of the students. Student life was hard and rigorous.
They observed celibacy.
iii. Religious education:-
In the Buddhist era, religion was given top priority and education was imparted
through it. The chief aim of education was propagation of religion and inculcation
of religious feelings and education served as a mean to achieve salvation or nirvana.
iv. Preparation for life:-
In this system of education, there was a provision for imparting wordily and
practical knowledge along with religious education so that when the students entered
normal life they may be able to earn their livelihood.
v. Physical Development
According to Buddha, good health helps a
man to escape from bodily suffering. So he gave importance for physical
development.
vi. Development of knowledge
To achieve Nirvana, they emphasized on
the development of true knowledge. In Buddhist period the practical knowledge
of the material world and of the four noble truths were regarded as the true
knowledge.
vii. Education of social behaviour
Buddhist religion is a supporter of
human welfare. This is the reason that too much emphasis was placed upon
compassion and kindness.
viii. Preservation and Development of
human culture
Buddhist religion emphasizes the
preservation of human culture as a whole. For that, they encourage the study of
other religions, cultures and philosophies.
ix. Character formation
They gave too much importance on self
control compassion and kindness and those who practice, these ideals possess
good character.
x. Vocational Development
To overcome the sufferings of hunger,
education of art, skills and vocation is necessary.
xi. Education of Buddhist religion
Students were trained in the eight fold
path namely-Right view, Right resolve, Right occupation, Right speech, Right
behaviour, Right effort, Right contemplation and Right meditation to achieve
salvation
Principle or Four noble truths of
Buddhisim
Buddha was primarily an ethical teacher
and reformer, not a metaphysician. The message of his enlightenment points to
man the way of life that leads beyond suffering. The four noble truths are:-
(1) There is suffering.
(2) There is cause of suffering
(Dukhasamaudaya).
(3) There is cessation of suffering
(Dukhanirodha).
(4) There is a way leading to the
cessation of suffering (Dukhanirodh- marg).
Pabbaja Ceremony
Pabbaja was an accepted ceremony of the
Buddhist monasteries. Pabbaja means going out. According to this ceremony the
students after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his worldly
and family relationship. An individual belonging to any caste could be admitted
to a monastery and after being admitted he did not belong to any caste. For
pabbaja ceremony the individual had to get his head fully shaved and put on
yellow clothes.
In this shape he was presented before
the presiding Bhikshu. On presentation this individual would pray for admission
to the monastery. On his prayer the head Bikshu would administer three basic
advices:
(1) I take refuse with Budha.
(2) I take refuge with religion.
(3) I take refuge with the order.
The aspirant for admission used to
pronounce these advices very distinctly. Then his admission was permitted. On
being admitted the individual was called a Sharman.
Upasampada Ceremony
After pabbaja the Buddhist monk had to
undergo the Upasampada ceremony. It was after receiving education for twelve
years, that it is at the age of twenty years, Upasampada ceremony was
performed. The Sharman has to present himself in front before all other monks
of the monastery. One could be admitted for this ceremony only when the
majority of the monks voted in favour of the same. After this ceremony the
Sharman was regarded as full- fledge member of the monastery. On this occasion
all his worldly and family relationships ended.
Curriculum
In Buddhist education primary, higher
and Bhikshu education were organized in Maths and Vihars and as they were under
the control of Buddhist Sanghs.
i. Curriculum of primary Education
Duration of primary education was 6
years. Reading, writing, five different sciences namely Morphology, Astronomy,
Medicine, logic and spirituality were taught.
ii. Curriculum of Higher Education
Duration of higher education was
generally of 12 years. During this period a general knowledge of grammar,
religion, astrology, ayurved and philosophy was imparted to students. Special
education included Pali, Prakit and Sanskrit languages along with their grammar
and literature and such subjects as astrophysics, cosmology, jurisprudence,
political science, economics, arts, skills, vocations, architecture, Buddhist,
Jain and Vedic religions, theology, logic.
iii. Curriculum of Bhikshu Education
Duration of Bhikshu education was 8
years but those Bhikshu who intended to acquire higher knowledge in Buddhist
religion and philosophy could continue their education further. Both worldly
and religious education is concerned initially imparted but at higher level
specialization in any of the field may be taken.
1. Worldly Curriculum
Reading, writing, mathematics arts,
skills and vocational education
2. Religious curriculum
For General students Buddhist, Jain and
Vedic religion were imparted. For the Bhikshu education, they had to study
Buddhist literature namely Tripitak, Sulta, Vinay and Avidhamma pitak.
Method of Teaching
Buddhist education aimed at purity of
character. Like Vedic education it was training for moral character rather than
psychological development of the students. One has to attain the stage of
Bodhisattva. Mental and moral development was emphasized. Following were the
methods:-
1. Verbal education:
Through the art of writing had been well developed up to Buddhist period yet,
due to shortage and no availability of writing materials, verbal education was
prevalent as it was in Vedic age. The teacher used to give lessons to the
novices who learnt them by heart. The teacher used to put questions on the
learning the lesson by heart.
2. Discussion:
In order to win discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public, it was
necessary to improve the power of discussion. This was also needed to satisfy
the critics and opposing groups and establish one’s own cult. Thus, rules were
framed for discussion.
3. Prominence of logic:
The importance of discussion encouraged the logic in the Buddhist period. The
controversial matters could not be decided without logical argument. Logic was
also useful in the development of the mental power and knowledge.
4. Tours:
The main of the Buddhist monks was to propagate Buddhism .Hence some Acharyas
like Sariputta, Mahayaggalva, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc gave the importance to
tours for educating people.
5. Conference:
Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1st day of month in the
Budhist sanghs. The monks of different sanghs assembled and put forward their
doubts freely. The attendance of every monk was compulsory in such conference.
6. Meditation in solitude:
Some Buddhist monks were more interested in isolated spiritual meditation in
lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely
meditation that had fully renounced the worldly attraction and had spent enough
time in the sanghs and had gained the efficiency for solitary medications.
Assembly of Learned People
On the beginning and close of every
month learned people used to assemble together. The purpose of this assembly
was to maintain the moral standards of all the monks, because the total
education was based on morality. It was compulsory for all the monks to be
present in this assemble so much so that even ill monks used to try to attend
it anyhow. If due to illness it was not possible for monk to come, then
assembly was held near his residence. This assembly was quite democratic and it
has immense moral impact on all concerned.
The Nature of Mass Education
The monasteries or Buddha Vihars were
the chief centres of learning and only the Buddhist monks could be admitted to
them for education. Thus there was no planned arrangement for mass education as
such during the period. It forms this position it would be wrong to construct
that the Buddhist monks were unmindful of the education of the people in
general. So at the time of begging alms the monks used to remove the religious
doubts of the people through their interesting conversation or short and alp
lectures. Thus the people in general received moral and religious education
from the monks.
Women Education
Women education during the Buddhist
period was at its lowest ebb, as the women folk were despised in the sense that
Lord Buddha had regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised
during his regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised during
his life time not to admit women in monasteries. But after some time due to the
insistence of his dear pupil Anand, Buddha had permitted about 500 women along
with his stepmother for admission in vihars with many restriction and
reservation.
Vocation Education
Vocation education was not ignored
during the Buddhist system of education. The monks of Vihar were taught
spinning, weaving and sewing in order that they meet their clothing
requirement. They were taught architecture as well. Education in architecture
enabled them to build up new Vihars or repair the old ones. Similarly the
householders following Buddhism but living outside Vihar were given training in
different type of and also earn their livelihood.
Discipline
Both teacher and students must follow
the rules of Buddhist Sanghs Strictly. Generally twice a month teacher and
students met at a specific place for introspection and to confess. Corporal
punishment was abhorred in that period.
Role of Teacher in Buddhist System
Budhist philosophy admit the possible of
attaining peace here and now, though, it start with a pessimistic note.
Teacher, therefore, need not have any cry of despair. Bhikshus were the
teacher. Budhist vihar as or monasteries have their methods of Imitation and
training for the apprentices. The preceptor must give his disciple, all
possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance. There was mutual esteem
between the teacher and the pupil. There relations were like father and son.
The teacher was regarded as spiritual father or intellectual father of the
student.
During Budhist period the place of
teacher in the scheme of education was very important. There were the categories
of teachers – Acharyas and Upadhayas. According to Sutras Literature Acharya
may admit according to his unfettered discretion, a number of pupils, who would
have to live with him at this house, for a minimum period of twelve years. He
would not accept any fees from the pupils under this instruction. The progress
shown by pupil was the only factor that determined the continence of his
apprenticeship.
Qualification of Teachers
1) 8 years of Bhikshu education after 12
years of higher education
2) to adopt Buddhism
3) life long celibacy
4) strict adherence to the sangh
discipline
These teachers had to make arrangements
of boarding and food for their students, impart knowledge to them and guide
them to overcome worldly attachments.
Responsibility of Teacher
Both the teacher and the student were
responsible to the monastery or the Buddhist order. But regarding education,
clothes, food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was wholly
responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student
whenever he fell ill. The teacher used to bestow all the affection to his
student and used to educate his through lecture and question answer method.
Student
in Buddhist System of Education
The
Buddhist system like the Brahmanical, enjoins upon the pupil the duty of
serving this preceptor as a part of education. The pupils is to rise early in
morning from the bed and give his teacher teeth-cleaner and water to rinse his
mouth with; then, preparing a seat for him, serve him rice- milk in rinse his
mouth with; then, preparing as seat for him, serve him rice milk in rinsed jug,
and after his drinking it, wash the vessel and sweep the place. Afterwards he
is to equip him for his begging round by giving him fresh undergarments, girdle,
his two upper garments, and his alms- bowl rinsed and filled with water and
then is to dress and equip himself similarly if he wants to accompany his
teacher but must not walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher
but must not walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must
not walk too far from or near him. He is not to interrupt his teacher in
speaking, even if he makes a mistake. There were also rules for the expulsion of
a pupil by his teacher. In five cases a Saddhiviharika ought to be turned away;
when he does not feel great affection for his Upajjhaya, nor great inclination
towards him, nor much shame, nor great reverence, nor great devotion.
Students in Buddhist period were termed
as Shraman or Samner. They had to compulsorily reside in Maths and vihars. They
had to get up early in the morning before teachers and had to make arrangements
for their morning prayers. Students unable to pay fees for higher education had
to contribute manual service.
Daily
routine of Students (Diuchariya)
The
student was expected to serve his teacher with all devotion. On rising in the morning
the student will arrange everything for the daily routine of the teacher. He
will cook his food and clean his clothes and utensils. Whatever he acquired through
begging alms, he would place before teacher. The student had to prepare himself
to receive education at any time whenever the teacher required him.
Expulsion
of pupils
The
teacher of a Buddhist monastery was empowered to expel any student on charge of
misconduct or any type of serious disobedience. However, the student was
expelled only when it was definitely ascertained that he lacked faith and
respect for the teacher and the other things related to the sanctity of the
monastery. After the death of the teacher or when the teacher changed his
religion or left the monastery for elsewhere, the students also deserted the
monastery. The education of the concerned students ended then and there.
Teacher-
Taught Relationship
Teachers
were like father figure to students. They generally looked after the administration
of maths and vihars and organized teaching work while students carry out the different
tasks as advised by their teachers.
Conclusion
In
retrospect we may say that the foundation of modern Indian system of education was
laid down in Vedic system of education but the complete structure that is
central administration, school education, group teaching, was laid in the
Buddhist system of education.
Jain System of
Education
Jinas
or Tirthankars are founders of Jainism. There were twenty three teerthankaras
before Mahaveera, who was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha (6th century BCE)
and is credited with formulation of a sect known as Jainism.
Division in Jainism
Jainism
is divided into two sects of Swetambara and Digambara. The Swetambara monks wear
white and Digambara ascetic who practice extreme renunciation have to discard
even the last piece of cloth or the barest necessity of life, to overcome
worldly binding. The followers of Lord Mahaveer compiled a collection of his
teachings in a book form. This book has been divided mainly into two
parts—Swetamber and Digamber.
Principles of Jainism
·
The literal meaning of Jaina refers to a
person who has overcome his sensual vices and has obtained full control over
his wordly desires.
·
Jainas laid great stress on right
knowledge and right conduct for self realization.
·
This system stressed five principles for
a virtuous conduct. These principles are non-violence truth, non-stealing, Brahmacharya
and Giving away of superfluous wealth to others.
Aims
of Education
Jain system recommended liberation as
the ultimate aim of education. According to this system liberation is of two
types i.e., Jivan Mukti and upper level is Dravya Mukti. Education should help
the student to do such karmas which leads towards Jivan Moksha, which again
will lead towards the higher level Dravya moksha. Thus this system stresses
social, economic, moral and spiritual aims of education.
Curriculum
Tri-ratna or three Jewels (Right faith,
Right knowledge and Right character)
Jaina curriculum includes social
sciences, natural sciences, moral education, vocational education and various
cocurricular activities and yoga exercises.
Concept
of Values
The escape of the Jiva from matter is
liberation according to Jain Philosophy. The Jaina system has suggested way of
obstructing the entry of karma. It is essential to sacrifice bad qualities like
attachment etc. and to have Nididhyasana. This makes the mind flexible and pure
and the Jiva can recognize the ‘soul’ situated in its own body. With this the
person endeavoring is bereft
Methods of Teaching
·
Experimental method and learning by
doing method.
·
Discussion method and to maximise
student participation in the teaching learning process.
·
Jaina system also emphasised group
activities. For this group projects, self control, sense of responsibility
towards their nation were stressed by the Jaina methods of teaching
·
Work oriented education and Vocational
education must provide
·
Practical knowledge or work experience
to the students.
·
socialized techniques, experiments,
learning by doing, co-ordination etc
Language
Sanskrit
and Prakrit
Method
of Learning
Self-study
was given due importance and a student is shown as reading a palm-leaf book
with great attention. The method of learning various subjects was traditional,
i.e., memorizing repeating, and reproducing. Vada or discussion formed the main
platform in Jaina system and training was given in oratory. Most of the famous
preceptors were great orators and established supremacy of Jainism over other
sects by arguing, disputing, and discussing logically. Tarkasasatra or science of logic occupied
prominent place in Jaina syllabus.
Jaina guru or Teacher
A Jaina guru was the most respected in the
Jaina community and we have a good deal of pictorial evidence. Sculptures
depicting teachers imparting lesson are several. Stools to keep the palm-book
ready are depicted in numerous sculptures.
Great teacher of
Jainism
Great
ascetic teacher of Jainism like Kondakunda, Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Jinasena,
Puspadanta and Somadeva etc. hailed from Karnataka and their works in Sanskrit
and Prakrit are studied throughout India. Jainism, unlike Buddhism continues to
flourish over centuries in this land.
Jaina students
Jaina
students devotedly listen to an ascetic teacher under the shade of a tree.
Jaina monasteries
The
Jaina monasteries had libraries of palm-leaf books and many secular subjects
besides Jaina agamas or holy texts. There were texts of other languages
and regions as well. Many more old and rare manuscripts are stored in the
libraries of well-known Jaina monasteries. But these are not easily available
to scholars who are of non-Jaina faith.
The Jaina monastic life was well
organized. After getting admission, a supervisor, known as the niryapaka kept a
watch on the behavior of each and every student. Wrongdoers were admonished in
time and waywardness punished. Rigorous training and study awaited the
incumbents. They had to make their own arrangements for day-to-day needs and
beg for food. Spicy food was to be avoided. Training was given to control basic
instincts like anger, joy, and sorrow and show calmness to all creatures under
all circumstances.
Besides food and shelter, books were
distributed free. Medical instruction was also imparted at the free hospitals
attached. Hospitals big and small were attached to Jaina mathas of his pain.
Development of
education during the pre-independent period
Education
during Islamic Period
Introduction
During
medieval period Muslim rulers started a new system of education which is
popularly known as Maktab-Madarsha system of education. Side by side the old
Pathashala system also continued for Hindu students. The period under review
covers the system of education in India from about the 10th century
A.D. to the middle of the 18th century, i.e. before the British
rule. We shall discuss the Maktab-Madarsha system of education that is Muslim
system of Education in detail.
Aims
of Education
·
Spread of
Islamic Culture & Islamic Religion
·
Enabling the individual for Islamic life
·
Preparing the students for the next
world
·
Equipping the students for a vocation
·
Development of
knowledge
·
Development of
character and morality
·
Loyalty to the
Government
·
Education of
Arts, skills and Vocations
Types
of institutions:
1.
Maktab system or Primary Muslim Education: Primary
education was imparted through the ‘Maktab’ which were attached with mosque. Most
of the Maktabs were either patronized by rulers or had endowment. They
dependent on the charity of the philanthropist.
Age
of admission: At the age of four years, four months
and four days, ‘Maktab’ ceremony or ‘Bismillah’ was performed to indicate the
beginning of the child. ‘Surah-i-Iqra’ a chapter from the holy Quran was
recited on this occasion.
2. Madrasahs system or Secondary and high education: Secondary
and high educations were functioned in ‘Madrasahs’. Countryside as the centre of education: By and large, educational
institutions flourished in the countryside
3.
Vocational education:
Provision was also made for vocational, technical and professional education.
Emperor Akbar took considerable interest in education as is evident from the
passage of from the ‘Ain-in-Akbar’.
Curriculum
Curriculum
at the primary level: Knowledge of alphabets, 30th
section of Quran, reading, writing, mathematics, letter and application writing
and the way of conversation, proper pronunciation and good handwriting
Curriculum at the higher level: The
curriculum was divided into two categories namely-worldly and religious.
Worldly curriculum: Arabic
and Persian languages and their Literature, Mathematics, Geometry, History, Geography,
Economics, Political Science, Astrology, Islamic law, Unani Medicine and various
arts, skills and vocations
Religious curriculum: Quran,
Islamic history, Islamic literature, Sufi literature and Islamic law.
Language:
Arabic
and Persian languages were mostly compulsory. For getting high government
posts, one had to learn these languages.
Fees:
There
were several village schools where the students were required to pay their instructions,
not in cash but in kind.
Education of sons of Nobles and Rulers:
The Muslims nobles as well as rulers engaged tutors to teach their children at
home.
Monitorial system:
Although a teacher did not have many pupils to teach yet, still the teacher
would take the help of senior and advanced students to teach the younger or the
junior.
Methods of teaching
·
Wooden books (taktis) were used
·
Individualized
instructions were followed
·
Calligraphy: beautiful and fine
handwriting was an important element of instruction
·
Religious Instruction
·
Imitation, practice and memorization
·
Self study method was also adopted for
higher level
·
To teach the activity oriented subjects,
arts, skills and other vocations Demonstration, Experiment and practice method
were adopted
Teachers
(USTAD):
People
well versed in Islamic religion and Scholars of Arabic or Persian or other
subjects could become teachers. They receive high salary and they possessed
high status in the society.
Students
(SHAGIRD):
The
students lived under the strict control and discipline of the teachers. They
lived in a highly authoritative and oppressive condition. They lead a
sophisticated life in the hostels. In hostel they had very good infrastructure
facilities and very delicious food was provided.
Teacher-Taught
Relationship
Teacher
loved their students and taught them with great concern. Students also
respected their teachers and obeyed them devotedly. The practice of living with
the teacher was not as common with the Muslim as it was in the case of
Brahmanic and Buddhist period
Discipline:
Punishments were quit severe. Corporal punishment was given and at the same
time there was a provision of reward for disciplined students.
Initial
educational work of the European Christian Missionaries
Introduction
India has been a centre of attraction to
foreigners since ancient period. In 1448, Vasco-de-Gama, discovered the sea route
to India. Portuguese Christian missionaries were the pioneers to introduce
modern system of education. The Dutch, French and Danish missionaries also
continued but at the end British missionaries succeeded everyone. But the
British were succeeded in establishing themselves in India.
Educational
work of the Portuguese Christian Missionaries
·
In 1498 Vasco-da-Gama, the Portuguese
sailor discovered the sea route to India.
·
In 1510 the Portuguese established their
rule over Goa.
·
In 1556 they set up a printing press in
Goa.
·
In 1575 they established a Jesuit
college in Goa.
·
In 1577 St. Ann College at Bombay.
·
Portuguese were focused on propagation
of Christianity, culture and educational institutions.
·
“Saints
Francis Xavier and Robert-de-nobli” were well known missionaries
·
Portuguese missionaries established
primary schools first.
·
They taught Portuguese, Latin, local
language, mathematics, grammar, logic, logic crafts, music and education of
Christianity.
·
They started printing religious books
and text books in their own press.
·
Textbooks, clothing and food were
provided freely to the poor students.
·
Started primary schools in Daman, Diu,
Hoogly, Chatgaon, Cochin and Bombay
·
Started modern primary education and
modern higher education in India.
·
Akbar impressed by the Jesuit fathers
and established a Jesuit college at Agra. But the Portuguese’s cast their eyes on
Delhi. Emperor Shahjahan drove them out in 1662.
·
Portuguese are regarded as the founder
of European system of education in India.
Educational
work of the Dutch Christian missionaries
·
Dutch traders from Holland entered India
in the mid of 17th century.
·
They established trading centers along
the sea cost in Chinsura and Hoogly in Bengal and Nagapattinam and Billipattm
in Madras.
·
Dutch missionaries had also missionaries
accompanied them.
·
They established primary schools to
educate children of both, the Dutch and Indian citizens working in Dutch
factories as well as Indians also.
·
They taught Dutch, local languages, geography,
mathematics and local arts and skills on European pattern in these schools.
·
They refrained from making these schools
the centre of religious education. “Due to enmity with the British” they had to
leave India soon.
Educational
work of the French Christian Missionaries
·
The French traders entered into India in
1667.
·
They too had brought French Christian missionaries.
·
French established factories in Mahe,
Yanam, karaikal, Chandernagore and Pondicherry.
·
They established primary schools near
their factories.
·
In the hands of Missionaries the schools
were entrusted.
·
The medium of education was French and
local languages.
·
French and Indian teachers were
appointed in the schools.
·
Education of Christian religion, French
and was compulsory.
·
Christian missionary was inevitably
appointed in each school to instruct religious education. Established education
in secondary school in Pondicherry.
·
Faced the enmity with British people in
three Carnatic wars they had to leave India.
·
Back to square one British took over the
position.
Educational work of the Danish Christian
Missionaries
·
In 1680 the Danish traders and
missionaries reached India.
·
They established their factories in
Serampore, Travancore, Tanjore and Thrichirapalli.
·
They too in line with the thinking of
previous missionaries i.e nothing but propagation of Christianity.
·
To propagate christiaity they
established primary schools in Travancore, Tanjore and Madras and the organization
of the schools were given to the missionaries.
·
The medium was local language and education
of Christianity was compulsory.
·
They translated bible into Tamil
language and set up printing press to print Bible in Tamil.
·
They converted 5000 Tamilians into
Christians.
·
In 1716, they established a Teacher
Training College in Travancore, pioneer of starting teacher training college in
India.
·
The medium was multi-lingual.
·
They failed to succeed in trade and
commerce and at last sold the factories to British people and returned to their
country, Denmark.
Educational work
of the British Christian Missionaries
·
They have contributed a lot to the
development of modern system of English Education.
·
East India Company came to India 1613.
·
Every British ship was accompanied by a Missionary.
·
The only aim the missionaries had to
propagate Christianity and British culture.
·
They made Bengal their centre for this
work.
·
They started this work in two methods;
one through education, other is service to the poor and infirmed.
·
The missionaries were supported by
Britain and East India company for financial assistance and patronage.
·
They established many charity based
schools in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
·
There were two types of these schools.
·
The first, medium of education was
English and second, the medium was local languages.
·
But the education of Christianity was
compulsory to both types of schools. Missionary work was bit slower in the
beginning.
·
After the Charter Act 1695, East India
Company permitted missionary fathers to run schools in the British cantonments.
·
As a result missionaries took up the
task and established hundreds of primary schools in
·
Bengal, Bombay and Madras (1731).
·
They established secondary schools in
Madras. Education of Christianity was made compulsory in all these schools.
·
Simultaneously East India Companies hand
soared high due to the internal conflicts between the emperors of India.
·
There was a bill against propagating religion
in schools.
·
By that way missionaries established a
lot of schools in various places in India.
·
There were three Christian controversial
missionaries who published a book titled to
·
Address to Hindus and Muslims.
·
In that book they expressed their own
views and the experiences with the people who practice Hinduism and Islam.
·
General Lord Minto arrested the
missionary, seized all the rights of the press and banned the books.
·
To oppose this act by the General, two
groups were formed in British parliament.
·
One group supported the act and other
against. In 1813, missionaries were given permission to visit India without any
restriction to organize education.
·
Even though Christian missionaries established
institutions to propagate Christianity in India, they have contributed an enormously
contributed for the development to the field of education in India.
·
They fixed the curriculum, prepared textbook,
method of teaching and published them.
·
They introduced time-table, class system
and examination system for class promotion.
·
East India Company had two ideas in this
context 1. Propagate Christianity 2. Educate Indians. When they established
themselves ruler of the country they executed their plan and accomplished it
till 1857.
Education
during British Period
Introduction
After
the downfall of the Muslim rule, Bristishers came to India and established the
East Indian Company but soon the reign of the government reached the hands of
the British parliament. Britishers ruled
over India for about 150 years. During this period western science and
literature made good progress through English medium.
Charter Act of 1813
The Charter Act of the East India
Company was renewed after every 20 years in the British parliament. In 1813,
when the company’s charter again came for renewal in the parliament, most of
the members in the parliament supported the movement led by the Christian
missionaries. As a result three articles were added in the charter act of 1813.
·
Missionaries of any European country
will have full freedom to visit India to propagate Christianity and to expand
education there
·
It will now be the responsibility of
East India company to organize education in the areas under its rule.
·
A sum of not less than one lakh of
rupees each year shall be set apart and applied to the revival and improvement
of literature and the encouragement of the learned natives of India and for the
introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the science among the inhabitant
of the British territories in India.
Anglicists - Orientalists controversy
The
Anglicist - Orientalists controversy had its origin in the charter Act 1813.
The terms, ‘literature’ and the learned natives were not clearly defined in the
section 43 of the charter Act, 1813.
Orientalist Group
Mostly
the senior and the experienced officials of the company belonged to this group.
According to them the term ‘literature’ meant Indian literature and the term
‘learned natives’ meant the scholars of Indian literature
Anglicist
Group
This
group contained mostly the young officials of the company. For them, the term
‘literature’ and learned natives in the Charter Act, 1813 meant Western
literature and the learned natives of the western literature respectively.
Macaulay
Minute (1835)
The
Anglicists and orientalists controversy could not be solved even after 20 years
in the new charter Act of 1833. On June 10, 1834 Lord Macaulay came to India as
a law member of the Governor General’s council. Lord William Bentick the then
Governor General, appointed him the president of the public instructions and asked
him to render his advise on three points -first –how to spend Rs. 10 lakh per
annum on education second to define the terms ‘literature’ and ‘learned native’
and third to solve the anglicists - orientalists controversy Macaulay Submitted
his report on 1835, in that he mentioned.
1.
The word ‘literature’ meant only English
literature and not Sanskrit or Arabic or Persian literature
2.
The word ‘learned natives’ meant a
scholar who is learned in the Locke’s philosophy, Milton’s poetry that is
English literature.
William Bentick Resolution
Lord
Bentik seriously went through the Macaulay’s report and declared the new
education policy of the British Government on March 7. 1835. The major
declarations of this policy are
1. All
government fund appropriated for the purpose of education would be best
employed on English education alone.
2.
The educational institutions of
Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian shall not be closed down. The economic grants for
their teacher’s salary and student’s scholarship will continue as before.
3.
In future no expenditure will be made on
the printing and publication of oriental literature.
4.
The money so saved will be spending on
the education of the English language, literature and Western knowledge and
science.
Downward
Filtration Theory
This
theory meant, “Education is to be filtered to the common people. Drop by drop
the education should go to the common public so that at due time it may take
the form of a vast stream which remained watering desert of the society for
long times and high class of people should be educated and common people gain
influence from them.”
Its Basic Causes:
1.
The company needed various types of
workers to run the business and government. They wanted to have cheap servants
who work in different capacities.
2.
The government did not have enough money
to take the responsibility of educating the masses.
3.
If the standard of living and ideas of
the people of higher classes in society could be changed through the English
education then the people of the lower classes also be influenced and they
shall grow loyal to the British government.
4.
If educated high class people are given
higher posts in government services then naturally they will use their
influence for controlling the masses from going against British government.
5.
After educating some people, the
responsibility of education could be left to them.
Wood’s
Despatch (1854)
Introduction
The
company has to take orders after every twenty years from the British parliament
and in each order something was written about the education in India. Therefore
when time for the charter of 1853 came, the directors of the company thought
for laying down a definite policy in regard to educational matters of India. So
a parliamentary committee was appointed to survey the educational progress in
India. As Mr. Wood was chairman of the Board of Control, so the declaration was
Christianized as ‘Wood’s Educational Despatch’.
The
recommendations of the ‘Wood’s
Educational Despatch’:
Ø The
acceptance of Educational Responsibility: The Despatch clearly
accepted that the responsibility of education in India lies in British
Government.
Ø The
aim of education: The aim of education is to raise
intellectual fitness and moral character.
Ø Courses
of study: Mr. Wood had recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit,
Arabic and Persian and recommended them as subjects of study in regular
Institutions. Finally, like Macaulay, he had also recognized the usefulness of
Western knowledge for Indians.
Ø The
Medium of Instruction: The Despatch says that due to
dearth of course books in Indian languages, the medium of education should be
English.
Ø Department
of Public Instruction: The Despatch declared that in all
the provinces, the department of public Instruction should be set up. Its
highest official should be designated as the Director of Public Instruction,
and he should be assisted by Deputy Director, Inspector and Deputy Inspector of
schools.
Ø Establishment
of Universities: The Despatch has suggested for the
setting up of the Universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
Ø Establishment
of Regular Institutions: The Despatch emphasized on the
graded schools as follows, primary schools, middle schools, high schools,
colleges, universities.
Ø Extension
of Public Education: As ‘Filtration Theory’ failed, so Wood
emphasized the useful education for the public. As the public itself was unable
to gain such an education. So increase of primary, middle and high schools was
emphasized. In order to co-ordinate education at these various levels it was
suggested to have scholarships and implement other schemes.
Ø Grant-in-aid
system: The Despatch suggested the Grant-in-aid System for
the institutions which fulfilled certain qualifications. He has also suggested
that the rules and regulations for Grant-in-aid should be framed on the levels
practiced in England.
Ø Training
of the Teachers: They suggested to open training schools
in every province of India, as they are in England was expressed in the
Despatch. This was done, so that teaching work may be conducted properly and
efficiently.
Ø Education
of Women: He threw light on women education too and praising
the persons engaged in this pious work, he suggested for its further
encouragement through Grant-in-aid and other measures. He has also approved the
declaration of Governor General that the Government should favorably assist the
female education in India.
Ø Muslim
Education: Concerning Muslim education, Mr. Wood
has said that Muslims are too backward in education and they should be
encouraged to gain more education and efforts should be made in this direction.
Ø Vocational
Education: They paid more attention to the
vocational education and suggested that schools and colleges should be set up
at suitable places to provide vocational education.
Ø Encouragement
of the Oriental Education: Though the report has supported the
western education through English medium for the Indians, yet it has
recommended for the development of Indian literature and suggested that the
books of western literature and science should not only be translated in these
languages, but original books should also be caused to be written, and for the
purpose the writers should be rewarded and encouraged.
Ø Education
and Service: In this reference, Mr. Wood has clearly
said: A) While selecting the candidates for Government service their
academicals qualification should be considered well. B) Academically, high
qualified persons should be preferred more than the others for government
services.
Conclusion
Since the Wood’s Despatch has
contributed much to the organization and stabilization of the present Indian
educational system, it is called ‘A valuable Contribution to the history of
Indian Education
Indian Education
Commission or Hunter’s Commission (1882)
Introduction
Lord Rippon came to India on February 3,
1882. He appointed the first Indian Education commission. Mr. William Hunter, a
member of the viceroy’s Executive council, was the chairman of this commission.
It came to be popularly known as ‘Hunter’s commission’.
Recommendations of Hunter Commission
1. Primary Education
The policies of the Primary Education
·
Primary education should be useful for
general life of the people and the subjects which are helpful for him in his
practical life should be included.
·
Medium of instruction should be
vernacular or Indian languages.
·
Government should make a constant effort for
its progress, expansion and development.
·
Primary education should aim not only at
preparing the students to enter into higher education but it should aim at
spreading public education all right.
Curriculum
State should have a free hand to frame
the curriculum. In spite of this recommendation the commission said that
physics, Agriculture, first-aid, Banking, Geometry subjects that are of
practical value in life ought to be included in the curriculum of the primary
education.
Financial Administration
·
It suggested that the local bodies and
provincial government should give some aid for
This
·
Finances for the schools in the villages
and cities should be separated.
·
Local funds for education should in no
case be sent on secondary or higher education.
·
The commission had recommended that the
provincial Government shall give grant for primary education to the extent of 11/2
of the local fund for education or 1/3 of the entire expenditure on this item.
Establishment
of the primary institutions
The
commission recommended that In order to raise the standard of the primary institutions,
the teachers should be properly trained.
Indigenous
Education
·
No restriction should be imposed for
admission to such institutions.
·
Government should encourage such
institutions.
·
Such institutions may voluntarily hand
over administration to the Municipal Boards and District Boards.
·
The government should not interfere in
their curriculum in any way and special financial aid for inclusion of subject
of practical value in life may be given by the government.
·
Poor students should be given stipends
and scholarships.
·
Proper arrangement for the training of
the teachers of these institutions should also be made.
Secondary Education
·
The Government should give the
administration and organization of secondary education into hands of efficient
and able Indians.
·
The commission recommended two types of
curriculum called Curriculum A & B.
·
Curriculum A was to have subjects that
were to be useful for higher study.
·
Curriculum B was to have vocational, occupational
and practical subjects.
·
English should continue as medium of
instruction.
Higher Education
·
They recommended to have varied and vast
curricula so that the students can select the subjects of their choice and
aptitude.
·
Grant-in-aid is given to the colleges by
considering its expenditure, number of teachers, efficiency and local need.
·
Meritorious & promising students may
be sent to foreign countries for higher education on Government scholarship.
·
Teachers who have received education in
European Universities are preferred for appointment.
·
Private colleges should be authorized to
receive lesser fee as compared to Government colleges.
Education Department
They recommended to
increase the number of inspectors in every province and Indians to be appointed
on the post of District inspectors of schools
System of grant-in -aid
·
Changes and reform should be made in the
rule of grant-in-aid system according to the requirement of all the
institutions
·
All the changes must be send to the
managers of aided institutions in their vernacular languages.
·
Special educational officers should be
appointed to give counsel to the managers of Government aided institutions
Education of the women
·
Free education, appointment of lady
Teachers and lady Inspectresses
·
Liberal Grant-in-aid system
·
Different curriculum for girls
·
Decent arrangements of Hostels
·
Special arrangements for education of
‘Parda’ observing ladies
Muslim Education
·
Effort must be made to popularize Muslim
education
·
Special funds should be allocated for it
·
More scholarships should be given for
Muslim students
·
In government appointments, Muslims
should be given proportionate representation.
Education of harijans and backward class
·
All the schools run by the Government,
municipalities and local boards should admit children of Harijans and Backward
class.
·
Special schools should be open for them,
where there was an objection raised to the admission of these Harijans and
Backward children.
·
School teachers must take judicious
effects to remove caste prejudices.
Education of aboriginals and hill tribes
·
Government was expected to take up the
responsibility of educating aboriginals and Hill tribes.
·
Free education and the subjects taught
should be of the most elementary character.
Religious education
·
Religious education of any sort should
not be given in the public schools.
·
Religious education may be imparted in
the private institutions and the government shall have nothing to do with it.
Conclusion
The Hunter commission was appointed
mainly to study the problem and development of primary education. But they made
suggestions in regard to the secondary, higher, women and modern education. It
was on the basis of suggestions of the commission a network of the primary
schools were spread throughout the country and the secondary and higher
education received a great impetus.
The Indian Universities Act, 1904
Lord Curzon became the Viceroy of India, he sought to
introduce the reforms in education apart from other administrative reforms.
Main Provisions of
Indian Universities Act, 1904
- Universities
were given the right of teaching along with the right of conducting
examination.
- Promotion
of study and research, set up university laboratories and libraries
- Number
of Fellows of a university shall not be less than fifty or more than a
hundred
- The
minimum number of the Senate of the
Universities was fifty and the maximum number was hundred. Their term was
determined for five years.
- Introduced
election in the constitution of the Senate. 20 fellows are to be elected
in the Universities of Madras, Calcutta and Bombay and 15 in other
Universities.
- Statutory
recognition to Syndicates
- The
Government reserved the right to make amendments and give approval to the
rules framed by the Senates. Hence, The Government control over the
universities and had the powers to
veto.
- The
rules in regard to granting recognition were made more strict. In order to
raise the standards of education, the Syndicate could call for the inspection
of colleges The Government approval was necessary for grant of affiliation
or disaffiliation of colleges.
Saddler University Commission (1917-19)
In 1917, the Government of India appointed a Commission to
study and report on the problems of the Calcutta University following the
enactment of The Universities Act of 1904.
Recommendations of
the Saddler University Commission
- In
the opinion of the Saddler University Commission, it was not possible to
bring about revolutionary changes in the field of higher education without
making changes in secondary education. Therefore, some fundamental changes
were suggested in the secondary education for the sake of improving the
university education.
- The
Saddler University Commission recommended Intermediate Colleges.
- The
curriculum of these Intermediate colleges should constitute courses
related to Arts, Science, Engineering, Industrial education etc.
- After
clearing the intermediate examination rather than the Matriculation
Examination, the students would be entitled to enter the university.
- The
duration of the degree course after the intermediate state should be
limited to three years.
- Board
of Secondary and Intermediate Education, be established and entrusted with
the administration and control of Secondary Education.
- The
commission also recommended less rigidity in the framing the rules and
regulations of the universities.
- recommended
an Inter University Board for coordinating the activities of Indian
universities.
- Autonomous
institutions were to be given more encouragement.
- Centralised
residential-teaching universities were to be encouraged.
- Women
education was to be encouraged in a big way
- Setting
up the Department of Education at the Universities of Calcutta and Decca.
- Recommended
for the centralised unitary teaching autonomous bodies.
Hartog Committee (1929)
The
Hartog committee 1929, had devoted more attention to mass education than the
secondary and University education. It highlighted the problem of wastage and
stagnation in education at the primary level.
Recommendations
of Hartog committee 1929 for reforms in higher education
- Recommendation for the
establishment of some affiliating Universities
- It recommended that the
universities should appoint the teachers for the affiliated colleges.
- It recommended controlling the
admission process in universities on the basis of the capabilities and
aptitude of students.
- The recommendation was made to
make the Honours course more advanced
- Promotion of technical and
commercial education by universities to control the problem of
unemployment.
Recommendations
of Hartog committee on education for reforms in Primary education
- Dropout of students before the
completion of a particular stage of education.
- It recommended the policy of
consolidation instead of multiplication of schools. The duration of the
primary course was to be fixed to four years.
- It recommended for the
improvements in quality, pay, and service conditions of teachers
- It recommended for the
adjustment of school hours and holidays as per the local requirements.
- It
recommended for increasing the number of inspections
Reforms in Secondary Education
- Large number of failures at the
matriculation examination.
- The committee recommended for
the introduction of diversified courses in the middle schools to meet the
requirements of the majority of students.
- The diversion of more boys
towards technical and commercial careers after the end of the middle
stage.
- Improvements in University
education, education of women, minority education and education of
backward classes etc.
- Consolidation and stabilization
of education.
- Government’s effort to improve
the quality of education.
However,
these recommendations of hartog committee of 1929 remained only on paper and
could not be implemented due to the great economic depression of 1930-31.
Characteristics of Basic Education
And its relevance to the present day context
Mahatma
Gandhi, the father of the nation gave ‘The Wardha Scheme of Education’ or
‘Basic Education’ for modern India, which can be called the first blue print of
national system of education, which is job centered, value-based and mass
oriented. It is the first model of vocationalisation of education in India. In
Gandhian scheme of education, knowledge must be related to activity and
practical experience. His scheme of education envisages, a close integration
between the school and the community so as to make child more social and
cooperative. This scheme was the first attempt to develop an indigenous scheme
of education in British India by Mahatma Gandhi. As a nationalist leader he
fully realized that the British system of education could not serve the
socio-economic need of the country. So he had developed a complete philosophy
of education for the whole country. He had worked out it after a good deal of
experimentation based on his philosophy of truth and non-violence.
Salient
features of Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)
- Free and compulsory education: 8 years (from 6 to 14
years). It was to be given in two stages, the junior stage covering 5
years and senior stage for 3 years.
- Craft centered education:
- Self supporting education: It aimed to provide
salaries of teachers. It would also ensure the dignity of labor along with
livelihood for the students after leaving the school.
- Medium of
instruction:
Mother tongue. It would have helped to speak, read and write correctly and
effectively and to develop precision of thought and clarity of ideas.
- The idea of citizenship: the Wardha scheme aimed at
providing the citizens of future an opportunity of personal growth,
dignity, and efficiency in a cooperative community.
- Flexible curriculum: free to work according
to their interest and requirement. There was no compulsion to complete a
prescribed portion under the fear of examinations.
- The various subjects were the
basic craft, mother tongue, mathematics, Social Studies, painting, music,
and sports etc. English was not included in the curriculum. However, it
was mandatory to learn the Hindi language.
- Religious education was not the part of the curriculum
Aims of Basic Education
·
Education
should develop the qualities of an ideal citizen in the child, socially,
politically, economically and culturally.
·
Education
should develop love for Indian culture in the hearts of the educed.
·
All
round development of the personality was considered. it must develop a child
intellectually, socially, physically, morally, spiritually.
·
After
completion of the education, they may be able to earn their livelihood and
fulfill their needs.
Curriculum
·
Select
one Basic Craft like Agriculture, spinning and weaving, woodcraft, fisheries,
Leather work, Pottery or ceramics, fruit preservation or Gardening, any other
craft according to the Geographical environment of the locality.
·
Mother
tongue, Mathematics, Social studies, General Science, Nature study, Botany,
Zoology, Chemistry, Elementary Hygiene, Astronomy, Life stories of eminent
scientists and inventories, Art (music or painting), Hindi, Home science-Girls,
Physical Education.
Teachers
·
It
emphasis on appointing female teachers in place of male teachers at the primary
level.
·
It
is necessary to appoint only trained teachers.
·
Long-term
training (3years) and short term training (1 year) should be given.
Time-Table
·
boys
shall have to devote 5 hours and a half for their study. It was also considered
necessary to work for about 288 days in the year.
Methods Of Teaching
·
Education
is imparted through activities and in short period of time the students are
given knowledge of various and varied subjects.
·
Emphasis
on activity based education
Basic education and its relevance
to the present day context
